* SEE ALSO: GNOSTICS, MILLENNIALISM

* Heresy in Christianity [Ереси в христианстве]. Heresy in Christianity denotes the formal denial or doubt of a core doctrine of the Christian faith as defined by one or more of the Christian churches. In Western Christianity, heresy most commonly refers to those beliefs which were declared to be anathema by any of the ecumenical councils recognized by the Catholic Church.[citation needed] In the East, the term "heresy" is eclectic and can refer to anything at variance with Church tradition. Since the Great Schism and the Protestant Reformation, various Christian churches have also used the concept to include individuals and groups deemed to be heretical by those churches. The study of heresy requires an understanding of the development of orthodoxy and the role of creeds in the definition of orthodox beliefs, since heresy is always defined in relation to orthodoxy. Orthodoxy has been in the process of self-definition for centuries, defining itself in terms of its faith by clarifying beliefs in opposition to people or doctrines that are perceived as incorrect. Ереси в христианстве. Е́ресь в христианстве (в противоположность ортодоксии) — формальное отрицание или сомнение в какой-либо из основных доктрин христианской веры, как они определены в одной или более христианских церквей. Ересь следует отличать от отступничества и раскола. Отступничество почти всегда предполагает полный отказ от христианской веры после того, как она была свободно принята, а раскол является нарушением церковного единства, не обязательно на догматической почве. В западном христианстве понятие ереси чаще всего относят к тем верованиям, которые были анафематствованы на одном из вселенских соборов, признаваемых католической церковью. На Востоке «ересь» является менее конкретным понятием и может пониматься как отклонение от церковной традиции. В Средние века понятие ереси было уточнено в каноническом праве и трудах католических богословов. Начиная с Великого раскола и Реформации различные христианские церкви использовали эту концепцию также в отношении лиц и групп, принадлежащих к другим конфессиям. Борьба «ортодоксального» христианства с «ересью» велась уже во II веке, однако вопрос об истоках этого конфликта в раннем христианстве является дискуссионным. Тогда же возникли первые теории о происхождении ереси от дьявола и апостольского преемства ортодоксии от Иисуса Христа и его учеников. С III века сложилась традиция осуждения ересей на поместных и вселенских соборах. В 385 году состоялась первая казнь по обвинению в ереси, широко это явление распространилось только в XII веке. В 1215 году были сформулированы принципы работы инквизиции, а вскоре борьба с ересью была передана ордену доминиканцев. Последний человек был казнён по обвинению в ереси в 1826 году. Христианские ереси являются предметом разностороннего изучения. Начиная с первых веков христианства создавалась обширная ересиологическая литература. Не существует общепринятой классификации ересей или их полного перечня. В разное время к ереси также причисляли колдовство и лжепророчество. +++

* Саддукейская ересь ['Sadducean heresy'] (I). // Ст. 17-25 Востав же архиерей и вси, иже с ним, сущая ересь саддукейская, исполнишася зависти, И возложиша руки своя на апостолы, и послаша их в соблюдение общее. Ангел же Господень нощию отверзе двери темницы, извед же их рече: Идите, и ставше глаголите в церкви людем вся глаголы жизни сея. (...) И с ним все, принадлежавшие к ереси саддукейской, - и вси, иже с ним, сущая ересь саддукейская; это показывает, что сам первосвященник принадлежал к еретической секте саддукеев и был ее представителем. Флавий прямо говорит, что один сын Анана или Анны (тестя Каиафы) принадлежал к секте {!!} саддукейской (Археол. XX:9, 1). Возможно, было в это время национального разложения уклонение в ересь и самого первосвященника, может быть, хотя негласное и с известными предосторожностями. Толкования на Деян. 5:17 // Acts 5:17-20 NIV The Apostles Persecuted. 17 Then the high priest and all his associates, who were members of the party of the Sadducees, were filled with jealousy. 18 They arrested the apostles and put them in the public jail. 19 But during the night an angel of the Lord opened the doors of the jail and brought them out. 20 “Go, stand in the temple courts,” he said, “and tell the people all about this new life.” // Sadducees. The Sadducees were a sect or group of Jews who were active in Judea during the Second Temple period, starting from the second century BCE through the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. The Sadducees are often compared to other contemporaneous sects, including the Pharisees and the Essenes. Josephus associates the sect with the upper social and economic echelon of Judean society. As a whole, they fulfilled various political, social, and religious roles, including maintaining the Temple in Jerusalem. The group became extinct some time after the destruction of Herod's Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. (...) Jewish sectarianism. The Jewish community of the Second Temple period is often defined by its sectarian and fragmented attributes. Josephus, in Antiquities, contextualizes the Sadducees as opposed to the Pharisees and the Essenes. The Sadducees are also notably distinguishable from the growing Jesus movement, which later evolved into Christianity. These groups differed in their beliefs, social statuses, and sacred texts. (...) Opposition to the early Christian church. The New Testament, specifically the books of Mark and Matthew, describe anecdotes which hint at hostility between the early Christians and the Sadducaic establishment. These disputes manifest themselves on both theological and social levels. Mark describes how the Sadducees challenged Jesus' belief in the resurrection of the dead. Jesus subsequently defends his belief in resurrection against Sadducaic resistance, stating, "and as for the dead being raised, have you not read in the book of Moses, in the story about the bush, how God said to him "I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?" He is God not of the dead, but of the living; you are quite wrong." According to Matthew's Gospel, Jesus asserts that the Sadducees were wrong because they knew "neither the scriptures nor the power of God". Jesus challenges the reliability of Sadducaic interpretation of biblical doctrine, the authority of which enforces the power of the Sadducaic priesthood. The Sadducees address the issue of resurrection through the lens of marriage, which "hinted at their real agenda: the protection of property rights through patriarchal marriage that perpetuated the male lineage." Furthermore, Matthew records John the Baptist calling the Pharisees and Sadducees a "brood of vipers". The New Testament thus constructs the identity of Christianity in opposition to the Sadducees. // The specific rabbinical term for heresies, or religious divisions due to an unlawful spirit, is minim (lit. "kinds [of belief]"; the singular min, for "heretic" or "Gnostic," is coined idiomatically, like goy and am ha'aretz; see Gnosticism). The law "You shall not cut yourselves" is interpreted by the rabbis: "You shall not form divisions, but shall form one bond" (after Amos 9:6, A. V. "troop"). Besides the term min for "heretic," the Talmud uses the words ḥitzonim (outsiders), apikoros, and kofer ba-Torah, or kofer ba-ikkar (he who denies the fundamentals of faith); also poresh mi-darke tzibbur (he who deviates from the customs of the community). It is said that all these groups are consigned to Gehinnom for all eternity and have no possibility of a portion in the world to come. The Mishnah says the following have no share in the world to come: "He who denies that the Torah is divinely revealed [lit. "comes from Heaven"], and the apiḳoros." Rabbi Akiva says, "also he who reads heretical books" ("sefarim ḥitzonim"). This is explained in the Talmud to mean sifrei tzedukim (Sadducean writings); but this is an alteration by the censor {??} of sifre ha-Minim (books of the Gnostics or heretics). The Biblical verse, "That you seek not after your own heart" is explained as "You shall not turn to heretic views ["minut"] which lead your heart away from God". (Heresy in Judaism)

* Назарейская ересь [Христранство, позже Жидовствующие; Nazarene heresy, Christianity, later Judaizers]. Деяния 24:1-8 1 Через пять дней пришел первосвященник Анания со старейшинами и с неким ритором Тертуллом, которые жаловались правителю на Павла.¹ 2 Когда же он был призван, то Тертулл начал обвинять его, говоря:¹ 3 «Всегда и везде со всякой благодарностью признаём мы, что тебе, достопочтенный Феликс, обязаны мы многим миром и твоему попечению – преобразованиями на благо этого народа.¹ 4 Но, чтобы много не утруждать тебя, прошу тебя выслушать нас кратко, со свойственным тебе снисхождением.¹ 5 Найдя этого человека язвой общества, возбудителем мятежа между иудеями, живущими по вселенной, и представителем назорейской ереси,¹ 6 который отважился даже осквернить храм, мы взяли его и хотели судить его по нашему закону. 7 Но тысяченачальник Лисий, придя, с великим насилием взял его из рук наших и послал к тебе, 8 повелев и нам, обвинителям его, идти к тебе. Ты можешь сам, разобрав, узнать от него о всем том, в чем мы обвиняем его. Acts 24:1-8 Paul’s Trial Before Felix 24 Five days later the high priest Ananias went down to Caesarea with some of the elders and a lawyer named Tertullus, and they brought their charges against Paul before the governor. 2 When Paul was called in, Tertullus presented his case before Felix: “We have enjoyed a long period of peace under you, and your foresight has brought about reforms in this nation. 3 Everywhere and in every way, most excellent Felix, we acknowledge this with profound gratitude. 4 But in order not to weary you further, I would request that you be kind enough to hear us briefly. 5 “We have found this man to be a troublemaker, stirring up riots among the Jews all over the world. He is a ringleader of the Nazarene sect 6 and even tried to desecrate the temple; so we seized him. [a] 8 By examining him yourself you will be able to learn the truth about all these charges we are bringing against him.” // The Nazarenes originated as a sect of first-century Judaism. The first use of the term "sect of the Nazarenes" is in the Book of Acts in the New Testament, where Paul is accused of being a ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes. Then, the term simply designated followers of "Yeshua Natzri" (Jesus the Nazarene), as the Hebrew term still does, but in the first to fourth centuries, the term was used for a sect of followers of Jesus who were closer to Judaism than most Christians. (Nazarenes)

* Ascodroutes [Аскодруты] (II). Ascodroutes, in antiquity, were a sect of Christian heretics in the 2nd century, who rejected all use of sacraments, on the principle that incorporeal things cannot be communicated by things visible and corporeal. They made perfect redemption consist in the knowledge of the universe {??} (Theodoret, lib. 1. Haereticarum fabularum compendium).

* Montanism [Cataphrygians, New Prophecy, ecstatic worship, prophesy, Holy Spirit; Монтанизм] (II-IX). Montanism, known by its adherents as the New Prophecy, was an early Christian movement of the late 2nd century, later referred to by the name of its founder, Montanus. Montanism held similar views about the basic tenets of Christian theology to those of the wider Christian Church, but it was labelled a heresy for its belief in new prophetic revelations. The prophetic movement called for a reliance on the spontaneity of the Holy Spirit and a more conservative personal ethic. Parallels have been drawn between Montanism and modern-day movements such as Pentecostalism (including Oneness Pentecostals) and the Charismatic movement. Montanism originated in Phrygia, a province of Anatolia, and flourished throughout the region, leading to the movement being referred to elsewhere as Cataphrygian (meaning it was "from Phrygia") or simply as Phrygian. As the name "New Prophecy" implied, Montanism was a movement focused around prophecy, specifically the prophecies of the movement's founders which were believed to contain the Holy Spirit's revelation for the present age. Prophecy itself was not controversial within 2nd-century Christian communities. However, the New Prophecy, as described by Eusebius of Caesarea, departed from Church tradition: "And he [Montanus] became beside himself, and being suddenly in a sort of frenzy and ecstasy, he raved, and began to babble and utter strange things, prophesying in a manner contrary to the constant custom of the Church handed down by tradition from the beginning." The Montanist prophets did not speak as messengers of God but were described as possessed by God while being unable to resist. A prophetic utterance by Montanus described this possessed state: "Lo, the man is as a lyre, and I fly over him as a pick. The man sleepeth, while I watch." Thus, the Phrygians were seen as false prophets because they acted irrationally and were not in control of their senses. A criticism of Montanism was that its followers claimed their revelation received directly from the Holy Spirit could supersede the authority of Jesus or Paul the Apostle or anyone else. // The essential principle of Montanism was that the Paraclete, the Spirit of truth, whom Jesus had promised in the Gospel According to John, was manifesting himself to the world through Montanus and the prophets and prophetesses associated with him. This did not seem at first to deny the doctrines of the church or to attack the authority of the bishops. Prophecy from the earliest days had been held in honour, and the church acknowledged the charismatic gift of some prophets. It soon became clear, however, that the Montanist prophecy was new. True prophets did not, as Montanus did, deliberately induce a kind of ecstatic intensity and a state of passivity and then maintain that the words they spoke were the voice of the Spirit. It also became clear that the claim of Montanus to have the final {!!} revelation of the Holy Spirit implied that something could be added to the teaching of Christ and the Apostles and that, therefore, the church had to accept a fuller revelation. When it became obvious that the Montanist doctrine was an attack on the Catholic faith, the bishops of Asia Minor gathered in synods and finally excommunicated the Montanists, probably c. 177. (...) Another important aspect of Montanism was the expectation of the Second Coming of Christ, which was believed to be imminent. This belief was not confined to Montanists, but with them it took a special form that gave their activities the character of a popular revival. They believed the heavenly Jerusalem was soon to descend on the Earth in a plain between the two villages of Pepuza and Tymion in Phrygia. The prophets and many followers went there, and many Christian communities were almost abandoned. In addition to prophetic enthusiasm, Montanism taught a legalistic moral rigorism. The time of fasting was lengthened, followers were forbidden to flee from martyrdom, marriage was discouraged, and second marriages were prohibited. Encyclopaedia Britannica - Montanism

* Montanus [founder of Montanism, cult of Cybele, eunuch, ritual purification, ascetic; Монтан] (fl II). Montanus, founder of Montanism, a schismatic movement of Christianity of Christianity in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and North Africa from the 2nd to the 9th centuries. The prophetic movement at first expected an imminent transformation of the world but later evolved into sectarianism claiming a new revelation. Little is known about Montanus. Before his conversion to Christianity, he apparently was a priest of the Oriental ecstatic cult of Cybele {"Uniquely in Greek religion, she had a eunuch mendicant priesthood."}, the mother goddess of fertility. According to the 4th-century church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, Montanus in about 172 or 173 entered into an ecstatic state and began prophesying in the region of Phrygia, now in central Turkey. Montanus became the leader of a group of illuminati (“the enlightened”), including the prophetesses Priscilla (or Prisca) and Maximilla. The members exhibited the frenzied nature of their religious experience by enraptured seizures and utterances of strange languages that the disciples regarded as oracles of the Holy Spirit. Convinced that the end of the world was at hand and that the New Jerusalem mentioned in the New Testament (Revelation) was about to descend near the Phrygian village of Pepuza, Montanus laid down a rigoristic morality to purify Christians and detach them from their material desires. Official criticism of Montanus and his movement consequently emphasized the new prophecy’s unorthodox ecstatic expression and his neglect of the bishops’ divinely appointed rule {"anti-clericalism"}. Despite official disapproval and the failure of the world to come to an end, Montanism survived in the rural areas of Asia Minor. The earliest explicitly Christian inscriptions outside the catacombs of Rome have been discovered in the valley of the Tembris River in Phrygia, dated by scholars to the middle of the 3rd century. A Montanist church with a full hierarchy survived until the 8th century. Its most significant figure, however, lived in North Africa. Tertullian, who converted to Montanism about 207, was a brilliant writer and the first important Christian to compose in Latin. Fragments of Montanist prophecies are preserved by Eusebius of Caesarea (Ecclesiastical History), which is available in several English translations. Encyclopaedia Britannica - Montanus, religious leader // (Montanism) Scholars debate as to when Montanus first began his prophetic activity, having chosen dates varying from c. AD 135 to as late as AD 177. Montanus was a recent convert when he first began prophesying, supposedly during the proconsulate of Gratus in a village in Mysia named Ardabau; no proconsul and village so named have been identified, however. Some accounts claim that before his conversion to Christianity, Montanus was a priest of Apollo or Cybele. He believed he was a prophet of God and that the Paraclete spoke through him. In some of his prophecies, Montanus apparently, and somewhat like the oracles of the Greco-Roman world, spoke in the first person as God: "I am the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit." Many early Christians understood this to be Montanus claiming himself to be God. However, scholars agree that these words of Montanus exemplify the general practice of religious prophets to speak as the passive mouthpieces of the divine, and to claim divine inspiration (similar to modern prophets stating "Thus saith the Lord"). That practice occurred in Christian as well as in pagan circles with some degree of frequency. // Монтанизм. Монтанизм — религиозное движение II века, (ересь) в христианстве. Названо в честь своего основоположника — Монтана. Течение возникло после того, как бывший языческий жрец Монтан из Фригии (на границе с Мизией), обратившись в христианство (около 156 года), не захотел войти в слагавшиеся в то время церковные рамки и стал проповедовать живое духовное общение с Божеством, свободное от иерархии и обрядов и проявляющееся в индивидуальных харизмах, то есть особых дарах Святого Духа, преимущественно в пророческом даре. Последователи Монтана, между которыми выделялись особенно две пророчицы, Приска (или Присцилла) и Максимилла, признали своего учителя за Параклета (Духа-Утешителя), обещанного в Евангелии от Иоанна. Движение распространилось из Малой Азии во Фракии; отголоски его достигли Карфагена, Рима и Южной Галлии. Религиозные идеи монтанизма известны главным образом из книг обратившегося в эту секту Тертуллиана. [E14]

* Marcus Cornelius Fronto [accuser; Марк Корнелий Фронтон] (c 100-late 160s). Marcus Cornelius Fronto, best known as Fronto, was a Roman grammarian, rhetorician, and advocate. Of Berber origin, he was born at Cirta in Numidia. He was suffect consul for the nundinium of July-August 142 with Gaius Laberius Priscus as his colleague. Emperor Antoninus Pius appointed him tutor to his adopted sons and future emperors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. (...) In addition, a fragment of a speech is preserved by Minucius Felix (Octavius 9. 6-7) in which Fronto accuses the Christians of incestuous orgies. // "Язычник Цецилий ссылается на речь циртинского оратора Фронтона (учителя и воспитателя Антонина Пия и Марка Аврелия" Литературный и богословский характер «Октавия»

* Цельс [Кельс; Celsus, accuser] (fl AD 175-177; philosopher). Цельс (также употребляется Кельс) (лат. Celsus; имя происходит от лат. celsus «возвышающийся, высокий») — римский философ-платоник второй половины II века; один из самых известных античных критиков христианства. Друг императора Марка Аврелия. Известен, прежде всего, своим трудом «Правдивое (или истинное) слово», написанным ок. 177—179 гг. и направленным против раннего христианства. Celsus. Celsus was a 2nd-century Greek philosopher and opponent of early Christianity. He is known for his literary work, The True Word (also Account, Doctrine or Discourse), which survives exclusively in quotations from it in Contra Celsum, a refutation written in 248 by Origen of Alexandria. The True Word is the earliest known comprehensive criticism of Christianity. It was written between about 175 and 177, shortly after the death of Justin Martyr (who was possibly the first Christian apologist), and was probably a response to his work. Philosophy. All that is known about Celsus personally is what comes from the surviving text of his book and from what Origen says about him. Although Origen initially refers to Celsus as an Epicurean, his arguments reflect ideas of the Platonic tradition, rather than Epicureanism {Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention.}. Origen attributes this to Celsus's inconsistency, but modern historians see it instead as evidence that Celsus was not an Epicurean at all. Joseph Wilson Trigg states that Origen probably confused Celsus, the author of The True Word, with a different Celsus, who was an Epicurean philosopher and a friend of the Syrian satirist Lucian. Celsus the Epicurean must have lived around the same time as the author of Contra Celsum and he is mentioned by Lucian in his treatise On Magic. Both Celsus the friend of Lucian and Celsus the author of The True Word evidently shared a passionate zeal against superstitio, making it even easier to see how Origen could have concluded that they were the same person. Stephen Thomas states that Celsus may not have been a Platonist per se, but that he was clearly familiar with Plato. Celsus's actual philosophy appears to be a blend of elements derived from Platonism, Aristotelianism, Pythagoreanism, and Stoicism. Wilken likewise concludes that Celsus was a philosophical eclectic, whose views reflect a variety of ideas popular to a number of different schools. Wilken classifies Celsus as "a conservative intellectual", noting that "he supports traditional values and defends accepted beliefs". Theologian Robert M. Grant notes that Origen and Celsus actually agree on many points: "Both are opposed to anthropomorphism, to idolatry, and to any crudely literal theology." Celsus also writes as a loyal citizen of the Roman Empire and a devoted believer in Greco-Roman paganism, distrustful of Christianity as new and foreign. Thomas remarks that Celsus "is no genius as a philosopher". Nonetheless, most scholars, including Thomas, agree that Origen's quotations from The True Word reveal that the work was well-researched. Celsus demonstrates extensive knowledge of both the Old and New Testaments and of both Jewish and Christian history. Celsus was also closely familiar with the literary features of ancient polemics. Celsus seems to have read at least one work by one of the second-century Christian apologists, possibly Justin Martyr or Aristides of Athens. From this reading, Celsus seems to have known which kinds of arguments Christians would be most vulnerable to. He also mentions the Ophites and Simonians, two Gnostic sects that had almost completely vanished by Origen's time. One of Celsus's main sources for Books I–II of The True Word was an earlier anti-Christian polemic written by an unknown Jewish author, whom Origen refers to as the "Jew of Celsus". This Jewish source also provides well-researched criticism of Christianity and, although Celsus was also hostile to Judaism, he occasionally relies on this Jewish author's arguments. Work. {Main article: The True Word} Celsus was the author of a work titled The True Word (Logos Alēthēs). The book was suppressed by the growing Christian community, and banned in 448 AD by order of Valentinian III and Theodosius II, along with Porphyry's 15 books attacking the Christians, The Philosophy from Oracles, so no complete copies are extant, but it can be reconstructed from Origen's detailed account of it in his 8 volume refutation, which quotes Celsus extensively. Origen's work has survived and thereby preserved Celsus' work with it. Celsus seems to have been interested in Ancient Egyptian religion, and he seemed to know of Hellenistic Jewish logos-theology {Philo: Logos as architect/maintainer of the world}, both of which suggest The True Doctrine was composed in Alexandria. Origen indicates that Celsus was an Epicurean living under the Emperor Hadrian. Celsus writes that "there is an ancient doctrine [archaios logos] which has existed from the beginning, which has always been maintained by the wisest nations and cities and wise men". He leaves Jews and Moses out of those he cites (Egyptians, Syrians, Indians, Persians, Odrysians, Samothracians, Eleusinians, Hyperboreans, Galactophagoi, Druids, and Getae), and instead blames Moses for the corruption of the ancient religion: "the goatherds and shepherds who followed Moses as their leader were deluded by clumsy deceits into thinking that there was only one God, [and] without any rational cause ... these goatherds and shepherds abandoned the worship of many gods". However, Celsus' harshest criticism was reserved for Christians, who "wall themselves off and break away from the rest of mankind". Celsus initiated a critical attack on Christianity, ridiculing many of its dogmas. He wrote that some Jews said Jesus' father was actually a Roman soldier named Pantera. Origen considered this a fabricated story. In addition, Celsus addressed the miracles of Jesus, holding that "Jesus performed his miracles by sorcery (γοητεία)": "O light and truth! he distinctly declares, with his own voice, as ye yourselves have recorded, that there will come to you even others, employing miracles of a similar kind, who are wicked men, and sorcerers; and Satan. So that Jesus himself does not deny that these works at least are not at all divine, but are the acts of wicked men; and being compelled by the force of truth, he at the same time not only laid open the doings of others, but convicted himself of the same acts. Is it not, then, a miserable inference, to conclude from the same works that the one is God and the other sorcerers? Why ought the others, because of these acts, to be accounted wicked rather than this man, seeing they have him as their witness against himself? For he has himself acknowledged that these are not the works of a divine nature, but the inventions of certain deceivers, and of thoroughly wicked men." Origen wrote his refutation in 248. Sometimes quoting, sometimes paraphrasing, sometimes merely referring, Origen reproduces and replies to Celsus' arguments. Since accuracy was essential to his refutation of The True Doctrine, most scholars agree that Origen is a reliable source for what Celsus said. Biblical scholar Arthur J. Droge has written that it is incorrect to refer to Celsus' perspective as polytheism. Instead, he was an "inclusive" or "qualitative" monotheist, as opposed to the Jewish "exclusive" or "quantitative" monotheism; historian Wouter Hanegraaff explains that "the former has room for a hierarchy of lower deities which do not detract from the ultimate unity of the One." Celsus shows himself familiar with the story of Jewish origins.[clarification needed] Conceding that Christians are not without success in business (infructuosi in negotiis), Celsus wants them to be good citizens, to retain their own belief but worship the emperors and join their fellow citizens in defending the empire. It is an earnest and striking appeal on behalf of unity and mutual toleration,[citation needed] though centered on submission to the state and military service. One of Celsus' most bitter complaints is of the refusal of Christians to cooperate with civil society, and their contempt for local customs and the ancient religions. The Christians viewed these as idolatrous and inspired by evil spirits, whereas polytheists like Celsus thought of them as the works of the Daemons, or the god's ministers, who ruled mankind in his place to keep him from the pollution of mortality. Celsus attacks the Christians as feeding off faction and disunity, and accuses them of converting the vulgar and ignorant, while refusing to debate wise men. As for their opinions regarding their sacred mission and exclusive holiness, Celsus responds by deriding their insignificance, comparing them to "a swarm of bats, or ants creeping out of their nest, or frogs holding a symposium round a swamp, or worms in conventicle in a corner of the mud". It is not known how many were Christians at the time of Celsus (the Jewish population of the empire may have been about 6.6-10% in a population of 60 million to quote one reference).

* Athenagoras of Athens [apologetic; Афинагор Афинский] (c 133-c 190). Athenagoras was a Father of the Church, an Ante-Nicene Christian apologist who lived during the second half of the 2nd century of whom little is known for certain, besides that he was Athenian (though possibly not originally from Athens), a philosopher, and a convert to Christianity. (...) Legatio Pro Christianis. The Embassy for the Christians, the date of which is fixed by internal evidence as late in 176 or 177, was a carefully written plea for justice to the Christians made by a philosopher, on philosophical grounds, to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, whom he flatters as conquerors, "but above all, philosophers". The Apology is an early attempt use Neoplatonic ideas to interpret Christian belief for Greek and Roman cultures. He first complains of the illogical and unjust discrimination against the Christians and of the calumnies they suffer, and then meets the charge of atheism (a major complaint directed at the Christians of the day was that by disbelieving in the Roman gods, they were showing themselves to be atheists). This first strongly-reasoned argument for the unity of God in Christian literature is supplemented by an able exposition of the Trinity. Assuming then the defensive, he justifies the Christian abstention from worship of the national deities by arguing that it is absurd and indecent, quoting at length the pagan poets and philosophers in support of his contention. Finally, he meets the charges of immorality by exposing the Christian ideal of purity, even in thought, and the inviolable sanctity of the marriage bond. In refuting the charge of cannibalism Athenagoras states that Christians detest all cruelty and murder, refusing to attend contests of gladiators and wild beasts and holding that women who use drugs to bring on abortion commit murder for which they will have to give an account to God. On the Resurrection of the Dead. The treatise on the Resurrection of the Dead, the first complete exposition of the doctrine in Christian literature, was written later than the Apology, to which it may be considered as an appendix. The writer brings to the defence of the doctrine the best that contemporary philosophy could adduce. After meeting the objections common to his time, he seeks to prove the possibility of a resurrection in view either of the power of the Creator, or of the nature of our bodies. To exercise such powers is neither unworthy of God nor unjust to other creatures. He argues that the nature and end of man demand a perpetuation of the life of body and soul. Although he clearly teaches the immortality of the soul and of the resurrection body, he argues that the soul is unconscious between death and resurrection: "[T]hose who are dead and those who sleep are subject to similar states, as regards at least the stillness and the absence of all sense of the present or the past, or rather of existence itself and their own life."

* Accusations against Christians: atheism, cannibalism, incest [Обвинения против христиан: атеизм, людоедство, кровосмешение] (II). Athenagoras was "a Christian philosopher of Athens," during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (A. D., 161–180), but is otherwise entirely unknown and not even mentioned by Eusebius, Jerome, and Photius. His philosophy was Platonic, but modified by the prevailing eclecticism of his age. He is less original as an apologist than Justin and Tatian, but more elegant and classical in style. He addressed an Apology or Intercession in behalf of the Christians to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. He reminds the rulers that all their subjects are allowed to follow their customs without hindrance except the Christians who are vexed, plundered and killed on no other pretence than that they bear the name of their Lord and Master. We do not object to punishment if we are found guilty, but we demand a fair trial. A name is neither good nor bad in itself, but becomes good or bad according to the character and deeds under it. We are accused of three crimes, atheism, Thyestean banquets (cannibalism), Oedipodean connections (incest). Then he goes on to refute these charges, especially that of atheism and incest. He does it calmly, clearly, eloquently, and conclusively. By a divine law, he says, wickedness is ever fighting against virtue. Thus Socrates was condemned to death, and thus are stories invented against us. We are so far from committing the excesses of which we are accused, that we are not permitted to lust after a woman in thought. We are so particular on this point that we either do not marry at all, or we marry for the sake of children, and only once in the course of our life. Here comes out his ascetic tendency which he shares with his age. He even condemns second marriage as "decent adultery." The Christians are more humane than the heathen, and condemn, as murder, the practices of abortion, infanticide, and gladiatorial shows. Philip Schaff - History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100-325 § 175. Athenagoras

* Тиестовые пиршества [ритуальное убийство, обвинение в крови младенцев; Thyestean banquets] (II). Образ жизни христиан, особенно избегание ими любых церемоний, связанных с языческими жертвоприношениями (а следовательно, и участия в общественной жизни {Khlyst}, в том числе и на официальных должностях), выглядел необычным для большинства населения Римской империи. В ходу были слухи о тиестовых пиршествах христиан, разврате и, главное, их атеизме. Доносы такого рода на христиан зафиксированы уже Плинием Младшим, наместником Вифинии, обнаружившим их полную лживость в ходе судебного разбирательства. В. А. Федосик, О. А. Яновский, В. В. Яновская, А. А. Торканевский - Рим и христианские мученики // Упомянутое «обвинение в крови младенцев», которое церковь адресовала монтанистам, есть не что иное, как мотив ритуального убийства, в котором, под названием «тиестовых пиршеств», античные критики христианства, и частности Цельс, обвиняли христиан. Церковь, в свою очередь, постоянно обвиняла в нем всех своих противников. Выступление Тертуллиана достаточно убедительно свидетельствует о ложности этого обвинения. Яков Абрамович Ленцман - ПРОИСХОЖДЕНИЕ ХРИСТИАНСТВА 1958 - Кто такие еретики // Thyestean banquet - banquet where Atreus serves Thyestes’ sons to him as food; a banquet at which human flesh is served. // BART WAGEMAKERS - INCEST, INFANTICIDE, AND CANNIBALISM: ANTI-CHRISTIAN IMPUTATIONS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE // In his public speeches, Crescens attacked Christians as “impious” and as “atheists.” According to the reconstruction of many scholars, Crescens’s contemporary, Marcus Cornelius Fronto, delivered a speech accusing Christians of incestuous banqueting and of infanticide. Fronto’s tirade may provide a backdrop to the persecution of Christians in Lyons and Vienne c. 177, as well as the response embodied in Athenagoras’s Plea. Paul Hartog - Greco-Roman Understanding of Christianity

* Apostolici [Apostolic Brethren, sects] (II-XIV+). Apostolici, Apostolic Brethren, or Apostles, are the names given to various Christian heretics, whose common doctrinal feature was an ascetic rigidity of morals, which made them reject property and marriage. Anatolian origins. {Main article: Apotactics} The earliest Apostolici appeared in Phrygia, Cilicia, Pisidia and Pamphylia towards the end of the 2nd century or the beginning of the 3rd. According to the information given by Epiphanius about the doctrines of these heretics, it is evident that they were connected with the Encratites {supposedly Gnostics} and the Tatianians {followers of Tatian of Adiabene (Tatian the Syrian)}. They condemned individual property, hence the name sometimes given to them of Apotactites or Renuntiatores. They preserved an absolute chastity and abstained from wine and meat. They refused to admit into their sect {"lapsi"} those Christians whom the fear of martyrdom had once restored to paganism. As late as the 4th century St. Basil knew some Apostolici. After that period they disappeared, either becoming completely extinct, or being confounded with other sects. Latin heretics. Failing a more exact designation, the name of Apostolici has been given to certain groups of Latin heretics of the 12th century. It is the second of the two sects of Cologne (the first being composed very probably of Cathari) that is referred to in the letter addressed in 1146 by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, to St. Bernard. They condemned marriage (save, perhaps, first marriages), the eating of meat, infant baptism, veneration of saints, fasting {!!}, prayer for the dead and belief in purgatory, denied transubstantiation, declared the Catholic priesthood worthless, and considered the whole church of their time corrupted by the "negotia saecularia" (Latin for "wordliness") which absorbed all its zeal. They do not seem to have been known as "Apostles" or "Apostolici": St Bernard, in fact, asks his hearers: "Quo nomine istos titulove censebis?" ("What do you think they call themselves?"). Under this designation, too, are included the heretics of Périgueux in France, alluded to in the letter of a certain monk Heribert. Heribert says merely: "Se dicunt apostolicam vitam ducere" ("They say they lead the apostolic life"). It is possible that they were Henricians (followers of Henry of Lausanne). During his mission in the south-east of France in 1146–1147 St. Bernard still met disciples of Henry of Lausanne in the environs of Périgueux. The heretics of whom Heribert speaks condemned riches, denied the value of the sacraments and of good works, ate no meat, drank no wine and rejected the veneration of images. Their leader, named Pons, gathered round him nobles, priests, monks and nuns {educated folk}. Apostolic Brethren {pre-Dulcinians; XIII}. {Main article: Apostolic Brethren} In the second half of the 13th century the Order of the Apostles or Apostle Brethren appeared in Italy. The order was founded about 1260 by a young workman from the environs of Parma, Gerard Segarelli {Dolcino's forerunner}. His followers had to live in absolute poverty, chastity and idleness. They begged, and preached penitence. The councils of Würzburg (1287) and Chichester (1289) took measures against the Apostles of Germany and England. But in 1291 the sect reappeared and increased, and were persecuted pitilessly. Four were burned in 1294, and Segarelli, as a relapsed heretic, went to the stake at Parma in 1300. Dolcino of Novara had been an Apostle since 1291. He fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and recanted, three times. But after Segarelli's death he gave himself out as an angel sent from God to elucidate the prophecies. Soon he founded an Apostolic congregation at whose head he placed himself. Pope Clement V directed a crusade against the sect, and on 23 March 1307 they were overcome, but continued their propaganda well into the 14th century. Later sects. Several controversialists have mentioned among the innumerable sects that have sprung from Anabaptism a group of individuals whose open-air preaching and rigorous practice of poverty gained them the name of Apostolici. These must be distinguished from the similarly-named but equally rigid Apostoolians, Mennonites of Frisia, who followed the teachings of the pastor Samuel Apostool (1638–beginning of 18th century). // Apostolici, or Apostolic Brothers. 1. a sect of heretics mentioned by "St. Augustine (De Haeres. 40), who says that they arrogated to themselves the title of apostolici, because they refused to admit to their communion all persons using marriage, or having property of their own; not that they were heretical he says, for abstaining from these things, but because they held that those persons had no hope of salvation who did not do so. They were similar to the Encratites, and were also called Apotactite {Apotactics, Apotaktitai, Apostolics, "renunciators"}. 2. A sect with this name arose in the twelfth century {"heretics of Cologne", "anti-Cathars"}, who condemned marriage and infant baptism, also purgatory, prayer for the dead, the invocation of saints, the power of the pope, etc. Many of them were put to death at Cologne (Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent. 12, pt. 2, ch. 5, § 15). 3. Another apostolic brotherhood was founded by Gerhard Segarelli, of Parma, about A.D. 1260. This brotherhood Pope Nicolas IV endeavored to suppress by various decrees of 1286 and 1290. No heresy of doctrine was proved against the founder; and his only profession was a desire to restore apostolic simplicity in religion. He was imprisoned and banished, but nevertheless his adherents spread through Italy, Germany, France, and Spain. They went about accompanied by women singing, and preaching especially against the corruptions of the clergy. In 1294 two brothers and two sisters were burnt alive at Parma. Segarelli abjured his heresy, but was burnt in 1300 for having relapsed. From, this time Dolcino of Milan became the head of this party, who predicted the sudden downfall of the Romish Church. Dolcino, in 1304, fortified, with 1400 followers, a mountain in the diocese of Novara, and plundered, for his support, the adjacent country. In 1306 he fortified the mountain Zebello, in the diocese of Vercelli, and fought against the troops of the bishop until he was compelled by famine to surrender in 1307. Dolcino and his companion, Margaretha of Trent, were burnt, with many of their followers. SEE DULCINISTS. These Apostolici rejected the authority of the pope, oaths, capital punishments, etc. Some Apostolic Brothers are mentioned, A.D. 1311, near Spoleto, and A.D. 1320, in the south of France. The Synod of Lavaur, 1368, mentions them for the last time. The sect continued in Germany down to the time of Boniface IX. Mosheim published an account of them in three books (Helinstadt, 1746, 4to). — Murd. Mosheim, Church Hist. cent. 13, ch. 5; Landon. Eccl. Dict. 1, 455; Hase, Ch. Hist. § 294. McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia - Apostolici, or Apostolic Brothers // Apostolici. The name of four different heretical bodies. Heretics of the third century. The sect of the Encratites, which sprang up in the second century in Syria and Asia Minor, with principles borrowed from Tatian or Marcion, practised an excessive asceticism which exaggerated Christian morality and distorted the teaching of the Church. By the third century they had split into groups of Apostolici, Apotactici, and Hydroparastates or Aquarians, names taken from their customs or tenets. The Apostolici so styled themselves because they claimed to lead the life of the Apostles and to be derived from them. Hence they proscribed marriage and property-holding as evil things, admitting into their body no married men or property owners. They lapsed into Novatianism, and finally became Manichæans. Their names and leaders are not known. The new apostolici of the twelfth century. The new apostolici of the twelfth century, chiefly in the vicinity of Cologne, and at Périgueux, in France, permitted no marriage, forbade the use of flesh meat, because it and similar products were the result of sexual intercourse; they explained that sinners (i.e. all who did not belong to their sect, in which alone was to be found the true Church) could neither receive nor administer the sacraments. In consequence they set aside the Catholic priesthood and gave each member of the sect the power to consecrate at his daily mealtime and so to receive the Body and Blood of Christ. They rejected infant baptism, veneration of the saints, prayers for the dead, purgatory, and disdained the use of oaths, because all this was not found in the teaching of Christ and the Apostles. Their external conduct was blameless, but notwithstanding their reputation for chastity, their community life with women was a clear proof of their deceptive and dangerous character. Meanwhile the people had come to know their character and the public aversion and disgust constantly increased, particularly in the vicinity of Cologne, where two members after being given three days for consideration were burned alive. St. Bernard in his sermon calls on civil authority to take regular procedure against them. Heretics of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The sect of the Apostolics, or false Apostles, was started in 1260, at Parma, Italy, by an ignorant man of low extraction named Gerard Segarelli (also written Segalelli, Sagarelli, Cicarelli), who strove to reproduce the life of the Apostles. He adopted a white cloak and grey robe, let his beard and hair grow, and wore the sandals and cord of the Franciscans. He sold his house, gave away the price he received, and traversed the streets preaching penance and Apostolic poverty. He had followers to such an extent that in 1287 the Council of Würzburg forbade them to continue their mode of life and prohibited the faithful from aiding them. Segarelli remained at Parma, was in prison for awhile, and then in the bishop's palace, where he was regarded as an object of amusement {??}. The sect increased, and Honorius IV (11 March, 1286) and Nicholas IV (1290) condemned it. Segarelli was again imprisoned in 1294, escaped, was retaken, abjured his errors, but relapsed, and the secular authorities burned him at Parma, 18 July, 1300. Dulcin, a bold, mediocre, and unscrupulous man, assumed control of the false Apostles, issued manifestos, and finally collecting his partisans withdrew with them to the mountains of Vercelli and Novara, until 1306, when Clement V organized a crusade against him. He was captured, his body broken and delivered to the flames, and his disciples crushed. Some of the sect appeared, however, in Spain, 1315; John XXII took measures against them in 1318, and they are mentioned by the Council of Narbonne, 1374. Their characteristic from the start was a declaration of a return to the life, and especially the poverty, of the Apostles. Honorius IV and Nicholas IV charged them with violating a decree of the Second Œcumenical Council of Lyons in founding a new mendicant order and with heretical teaching. Dulcin's tenets were: the imitation of Apostolic life; poverty was to be absolute, obedience, interior; and one engaged himself, though by no vow, to live by alms. Dulcin also taught that the course of humanity is marked by four periods: 1) that of the Old Testament; 2) that of Jesus Christ and the Apostles; 3) that beginning with Popes Sylvester and Constantine, in which the Church declined through ambition and love of riches; 4) the era of Segarelli and Dulcin, to the end of the world. He uttered several false prophecies and professed liberty of thought. Free morals have been imputed {!!} to this sect by the Franciscan Salimbene (Chronica, 117) and Bernard Gui (Practica inquisitionis hereticæ pravitatis, 339), but the papal bulls are silent on this head. Apostolici. A branch of the Anabaptists, which practised poverty, interpreted Scripture literally, and declared the washing of feet necessary, from which they were called also Pedonites. Sources. VERNET in Dict. théol. cath., s.v. ; LIMBACH, Hist. Inquisit. (Amsterdam, 1672), 338-339, 360-363; EPIPHANIUS, Hær., LXI, in P.G., XLI, 1040 sqq.; AUGUSTINE, Hær., XL, in P.L., XLII, 32; BRAUN in Kirchenlex., I, s.v. New Advent - Apostolici

* Марк Минуций Феликс [апологет; Marcus Minucius Felix] (ум ок 250; раннехристианский апологет). Минуций Феликс (лат. Marcus Minucius Felix, ум. около 210 г.) — раннехристианский апологет, римский адвокат; родился в Африке. Известен апологией христианства в форме диалога «Октавий», написанного, вероятно, в 180—192 гг. (при Коммоде). Существует лишь один древний список апологии, который папой Львом Х был подарен Франциску I, королю Франции. Фаусто Сабео издал это сочинение в 1543 г. как восьмую книгу сочинения Арнобия «Против ересей», которое было помещено в той же рукописи. Ошибка была обнаружена Франсуа Бодуэном в 1560 г. Среди многочисленных последующих изданий — Якоба Гроновиуса (Лион, 1709), И. Г. Линднера (1760 и 1773), Э. фон Муральта (Турин, 1836) и Ж. П. Миня в «Patrologia Latina». Этот диалог считается одним из лучших сочинений раннехристианской апологетики по литературным достоинствам и логике доказательств. Исследователи полагают, что он широко использовал произведения Цицерона и Сенеки. Минуций Феликс ниспровергает политеизм, отвергает смехотворные обвинения христиан в оргиях и атеизме и даёт описание истинной веры христиан и их жизни. Любопытно, что в диалоге содержится одно из самых ранних упомнаний об игре в "блинчики". Marcus Minucius Felix. Marcus Minucius Felix was one of the earliest of the Latin apologists for Christianity. He is now exclusively known by his Octavius, a dialogue on Christianity between the pagan Caecilius Natalis and the Christian Octavius Januarius. Written for educated non-Christians, the arguments are borrowed chiefly from Cicero, especially his De natura deorum ("Concerning the Nature of the Gods"), and Christian material, mainly from the Greek Apologists. The Octavius is admittedly earlier than Cyprian's Quod idola dei non-sint, which borrows from it; how much earlier can be determined only by settling the relation in which it stands to Tertullian's Apologeticum.[citation needed]

* Apotactics [Apotaktitai, Apostolics, Renuntiatores, "renunciators" of private property, Manichaeans/Gnostics ??; Апотактики, апостолики] (III). The Apotactics or Apotactites (from the Greek apotassomai, to renounce) were adherents of a Christian heresy which sprang up in the third century and spread through the western and southern parts of Asia Minor (present Anatolia, Asian Turkey). What little is known of this sect is found in the writings of Epiphanius of Salamis, who wrote that they called themselves Apotactics ("renunciators") because they scrupulously renounced all private property, believing that "a renunciation of property is necessary to salvation." They were also called Apostolics, because they attempted to follow the manner of life of the Twelve Apostles, and they rejected marriage. They also abstained from wine and meat. The saint regards them as a branch of the Tatians, akin to the Encratites and the Cathari. Further, according to Epiphanius, "They boast of having no possessions, if you please, but they divide and harm God's holy church for no good reason, by depriving themselves of God's loving kindness through their willful sort of worship. For they allow no readmission if one of them has lapsed, and when it comes to matrimony and the rest they agree with the sects mentioned above [that is, the Tatians, Encratites, and Cathari]. And the Purists {i.e. orthodox (??)} use only the canonical scriptures, but these people rely mostly on the so-called Acts of Andrew and Thomas, and have nothing to do with the ecclesiastical canon." At the time when Epiphanius wrote, in the fourth century, they had become an insignificant sect, for in refuting them he says: "They live in a small area, around in Phrygia, Cilicia and Pamphylia. Now what does this mean? Is the church exterminated from one end of the earth to the other? Will 'Their sound is gone out unto all lands, and their words unto the ends of the world,' no longer hold?" St. Basil mentions these heretics in his Epistles. He gives them the name of Apotaktitai (Apotactites) and says that they declared God's creatures defiled (inquinatam). They are also briefly mentioned by St. Augustine and by St. John Damascene. They were condemned in the Code of Theodosius the Great as a branch of the dualist heresy of Manicheans. {<> Antitaktai, "Opposers": Gnostics / "mitigated Marcionists" ??} // АПОТАКТИКИ [от греч. отказываться; апостолики], сторонники ереси, распространившейся в III в. в М. Азии. Сведения о ереси приводятся св. Епифанием Кипрским (Panarion. 61). Суть учения А. заключалась в отказе от частной собственности, от брака, в чем они видели подражание апостолам (отсюда второе название - апостолики). По св. Епифанию, А. являлись ответвлением сторонников Татиана, близких к катарам и энкратитам. К IV в. секта утратила свое значение. Впрочем, св. Василий Великий упоминает ересь в своем 1-м каноническом послании (374) свт. Амфилохию, еп. Иконийскому, говоря о правилах приема в Церковь возвращающихся из расколов и ересей. Православная энциклопедия - АПОТАКТИКИ

* Novatianism [clerical purity, Lapsi; Новацианство] (III-VII). Novatianism was an Early Christian sect devoted to the theologian Novatian (c. 200–258) that held a strict view that refused readmission to communion of Lapsi (those baptized Christians who had denied their faith or performed the formalities of a ritual sacrifice to the pagan gods under the pressures of the persecution sanctioned by Emperor Decius in AD 250). The Church of Rome declared the Novatianists heretical following the letters of Saint Cyprian of Carthage. Новацианство. Новатиа́не или новациа́не (др.-греч. ναυατιανοί; лат. novatiani), или кафа́ры или чи́стые (др.-греч. «чистые»; лат. cathari) — раскольническое движение III—VII веков, получившие своё имя от Новациана, который восстал против допускавшегося Римским епископом Корнилием благосклонного принятия в Церковь ранее отпавших от неё. // Novatian (c 200–258; theologian). Novatian was a scholar, priest, theologian and antipope between 251 and 258. Some Greek authors give his name as Novatus, who was an African presbyter. He was a noted theologian and writer, the first Roman theologian who used the Latin language, at a time when there was much debate about how to deal with Christians who had lapsed and wished to return, and the issue of penance. Consecrated as pope by three bishops in 251, he adopted a more rigorous position than the established Pope Cornelius. Novatian was shortly afterwards excommunicated: the schismatic church which he established persisted for several centuries (see Novatianism).

* Heretical baptism [Novatian; Еретическое крещение, Новациан] (III). If we could travel back in time to the middle of the third century we would quickly discover the Catholic Church, although fraught with differences from today, had many similarities to our modern day, 21st-century church. There was plenty of hierarchical infighting going on and the politics of leading the Church was in flux. In the year 250 AD, the Roman Emperor, Decius, unhappy as to how Christianity was spreading, embarked on a persecution of the Christians that, up until that time, was the most brutal they had ever faced. Among the first to die was Pope Fabian, the 16th Pope, who had held the Papacy for fourteen years. When Fabian died, he was followed by Pope Cornelius who died within a year. He was followed by Pope Lucius I who also died within a year. Both of these men died of natural causes. The Church was then without a pope and was run collegiately under the direction of a priest named Novatian {Novatian (c 200–258; theologian)}. Emperor Decius demanded that all Christians offer sacrifice to the Roman gods to show their loyalty to Rome. Any who refused were executed. Others fled into the countryside or tried to bribe officials. The last recourse was to reject the Faith. Many took this route. It was an easier path than giving up one’s life. After Fabian’s murder and during this time a huge pastoral problem arose. Emperor Decius’ persecution had seen many Christians purchase certificates attesting to the fact that they had made the required sacrifices to the Roman Gods. Other had denied that they were Christians while others took part in pagan sacrifices. These people were called “lapsi.” The question within the still fledgling Church was whether or not, if they repented for their sins, could they be readmitted to full communion with the Church. If they could, what would be the conditions? Novatian was preaching the false doctrine {!!} that those people who were “lapsi” could not be forgiven while the Catholic position was to grant full communion to those who fully repented. Novatian and his followers would only grant fellowship to the sinners, not full communion. Novatian went even further and said that those who had denied the faith and idol worshipped could not be forgiven as the Church did not have the power to do so. He said that being baptized does not administer forgiveness for certain, heinous sins. Pope Lucius had appointed his archdeacon, Stephen, as his successor (this was way before the College of Cardinals) and Pope Stephen was faced with the task of reuniting the Church from the schism started by Novatian. He began his papacy in the year 254. Stephen’s most important battle was his defense of the Sacrament of Baptism. The Novatianist priests were re-baptizing those who sought forgiveness. Stephen insisted that re-baptizing previously baptized persons was unnecessary {-> беспоповцы-перекрещенцы; Чиноприём первого чина (чин посредством крещения) - re-baptism of "heretics": Christians of other denominations aren't recognized as Christians, since they were baptized by non-Christians - invalid "pagan" baptism <> Anabaptism (Wiedertäufer) - invalid infant baptism. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. This believer's baptism is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized. Slightly different issue - someone who received infant baptism (even if by Christians) was never really baptized at all}. He argued that only absolution was required to regain full communion with the Church. Cyprian of Carthage and other African and Asian bishops called what the Novationists were doing as heretical {-> heretical baptism}. Stephen, besides having the support of Cyprian and other bishops, was pressured from others within the Church to be flexible and allow re-baptism for the Novationist priests. Stephen would not waver and stayed true to his conviction. Even Cyprian changed his mind and disagreed loudly claiming that baptism administered by heretics was invalid. All those people who had received this sacrament would need to be re-baptized. But Stephen was the Bishop of Rome. The unwavering defense of his position on Baptism more than likely established Rome as the seat of the Church. He claimed that he was occupying the seat of Peter as handed down by Christ. He is recognized as the first pope to formally announce the primacy of Rome. He also put in place that Baptism if administered by anyone {incl. non-priests ??} with the right intent is valid. That practice stands today, 1800 years later. Stephen died in 257 and his Feast Day is August 2. He is honored as a saint in the Catholic Church and the Eastern orthodox Church. Larry Peterson Pope St. Stephen I—He defined the Sacrament of Baptism and it Stands to this Day

* Traducianism [Generationism; Традуционизм] (III). In Christian theology, traducianism is a doctrine about the origin of the soul or synonymously, spirit, holding that this immaterial aspect is transmitted through natural generation along with the body, the material aspect of human beings. That is, human propagation is of the whole being, both material and immaterial aspects: an individual's soul is derived from the soul of one or both parents. This implies that only the soul of Adam was created directly by God (with Eve's substance, material and immaterial, being taken from out of Adam), in contrast with the idea of creationism of the soul, which holds that all souls are created directly by God. (...) All Church Fathers agreed that the soul of Adam was directly created by God, they disagreed about if humans thereafter were each given souls as a special act of Creation or if it was passed on to them the same way their bodies were. Tertullian actively advocated traducianism, the parental generation of souls. After the rise of Pelagianism, some theologians hesitated between Generationism and Creationism, thinking the former to offer a better, if not the only, explanation of the transmission of original sin. For Augustine, traducianism suggested a simple explanation for original sin, but he could not decide between it and creationism. In his writing to Saint Jerome, Augustine said, "If that opinion of the creation of new souls is not opposed to this established article of faith let it be also mine; if it is, let it not be thine."[citation needed] Jerome condemned it and said that creationism was the opinion of the Church, but he admitted that most of the Western Christians held traducianism. Gregory of Nyssa alone among the Greek Fathers leaned toward traducianism. (...) Creationism always prevailed in the East and became the general opinion of medieval theologians. Amongst the Scholastics, there were no defenders of traducianism. Традуционизм. Традуционизм, также генерационизм, традукционизм (от лат. traducere—переводить или лат. traductio—перемещение) — одна из трех теологических концепций о возникновении души, наравне с креацианизмом и теорией предсуществования Платона и Оригена. Современной Православной Церковью концепция отвергнута, однако подхвачена некоторыми ересями (например богумилами). В Католической Церкви теория традуционизма так же отвергнута и не признается, "душа сотворена непосредственно Богом". Изначально в христианстве существовало три теории возникновения души. 1) Теория предсуществования постулировала вечность человеческой души, существующей не только после (лат. parte post), но и до рождения человека (лат. parte ante), то есть существующей вне времени вечной души. Данная теория была разработана известным греческим теологом Оригеном и впоследствии отвергнута Церковью на Втором Константинопольском соборе в 553 году. 2) Креацианисты (от лат. creatio animae), в основном христианские писатели, признавали вечность души только как parte post, считая, что Бог создаёт душу в каждом отдельном случае рождения человека, лишь после этого наделяя её бессмертием. 3) Кроме этих двух учений существовали защитники третьего взгляда на существование души, называвшие себя традуционистами. Суть традуционизма. Традуционисты считали, что душа родителей передаётся детям через отцовское семя и в своих взглядах были схожи с последователями теории предсуществования. Это хорошо заметно в учении Готфрида Лейбница о преформации (переросшем впоследствии в преформизм), утверждающем о том, что жизни и смерти не существует, а рождение — лишь трансформация того, что уже существовало ранее. Смерть же — всего лишь нечто противоположное рождению. К последователям традуционизма себя относили Тертуллиан, Аврелий Августин и Мартин Лютер. В частности Аврелий Августин именно традуционизмом объяснял переход первородного греха Адама и Евы всему остальному человеческому роду. // Traducianism (tradux, a shoot or sprout, and more specifically a vine branch made to take root so as to propagate the vine), in general the doctrine that, in the process of generation, the human spiritual soul is transmitted to the offspring by the parents. When a distinction is made between the terms Traducianism and Generationism, the former denotes the materialistic doctrine of the transmission of the soul by the organic process of generation, while the latter applies to the doctrine according to which the soul of the offspring originates from the parental soul in some mysterious way analogous to that in which the organism originates from the parent's organism. Traducianism is opposed to Creationism or the doctrine that every soul is created by God. Both, however, against Emanationism and Evolutionism (q.v.) admit that the first human soul originated by creation. They differ only as to the mode of origin of subsequent souls. New Advent - Traducianism

* Creationism [origin of the soul; Креацианизм] (III). Creationism is a doctrine held by some Christians that God creates a soul for each body that is generated. Alternative Christian views on the origin of souls are traducianism and also the idea of a pre-existence of the soul. The Scholastic philosophers held the theory of Creationism. (...) History. Augustine of Hippo was undecided between creationism and traducianism, while Jerome condemned traducianism and held that creationism was the opinion of the Church. Augustine attempted to reconcile the statement in Genesis 2:2 "On the seventh day God completed the work he had been doing; he rested on the seventh day from all the work he had undertaken," with Jerome's citation of John 5:17, "“My Father is at work until now, so I am at work,” "if, I say, … we affirm that for each individual He creates separately a new soul when he is born, we do not herein affirm that He makes anything which he had not already made. For He had already made man after His own image on the sixth day; and this work of His is unquestionably to be understood with reference to the rational soul of man. The same work He still does, not in creating what did not exist, but in multiplying what already existed. Wherefore it is true, on the one hand, that He rested from creating things which previously did not exist, and equally true, on the other hand, that He continues still to work, not only in governing what He has made, but also in making (not anything which did not previously exist, but) a larger number of those creatures which He had already made. Wherefore, either by such an explanation, or by any other which may seem better, we escape from the objection advanced by those who would make the fact that God rested from His works a conclusive argument against our believing that new souls are still being daily created, not from the first soul, but in the same manner as it was made." Philo and some rabbis insisted that God’s providence remains active, keeping all things in existence, giving life in birth and taking it away in death. Other rabbis taught that God rested from creating, but not from judging, ruling, or governing. Creationism, which had always prevailed in Eastern Christianity, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians. Amongst the Scholastics there were no defenders of Traducianism. Hugh of Saint Victor and Alexander of Hales alone characterize Creationism as the more probable opinion; all the other Schoolmen hold it as certain. Peter Lombard's creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo creat ("in creating, God pours in the soul, and in pouring, He creates") was an accepted formula.

* Paterniani [Venustiani] (III/IV ??). In his De haeresibus, c. 85, Augustine mentions the heresy of the Paterniani. This heresy teaches that the lower parts of the human body were created by the devil and not by God. For that reason the Paterniani grant license to all shameful deeds proceeding from the lower parts and live in flagrant impurity. (...) In Epiphanius’ Adversus octoginta haereses we also read that the lower half of the human body is the work of the devil and the upper part the work of God. The Severiani also believe that the libido resides in the lower part of the human body. But it is evident that the conclusions drawn by these two groups led to totally different life styles. For the Severiani, according to Epiphanius, the distinction between the lower and the upper parts of the human body leads to the rejection of drinking wine, because for them, the vine is the work of the devil. They also emphazise that the people who have intercourse with each other, participate in the work of the devil. Thus, while the distinction between the lower and upper parts of the body resulted in the Severiani condemning sexuality, as we have already mentioned, it led the Paterniani to the opposite practice, flagrant impurity. (...) Moreover, the teachings of the Paterniani are, in Julian’s view, quite different from the beliefs of the Manichaei. Surely, both sects defend a rigid dualism, the Paterniani between the upper and the lower parts of the human body, with the soul residing in the upper part, and the Manichaei who distinguish between the soul and the body. Both the Paterniani and the Manichaei believe that the soul is created by God. But here one finds an important difference : the Paterniani say that the soul does not care about the pubes (work of the devil), while the Manichaei emphasize that the soul fights against the body {ascetism}, since the soul, created by God is good and the human nature created by the prince of the darkness is bad. A short note on the Paterniani

* Donatism [clerical purity, traditores, Africa, Constantine I; Донатизм] (IV-VI). Donatism was a heresy leading to schism in the Church of Carthage from the fourth to the sixth centuries AD. Donatists argued that Christian clergy must be faultless for their ministry to be effective and their prayers and sacraments to be valid. Donatism had its roots in the long-established Christian community of the Roman Africa province (present-day Tunisia, the northeast of Algeria, and the western coast of Libya.) in the persecutions of Christians under Diocletian. Named after the Berber Christian bishop Donatus Magnus, Donatism flourished during the fourth and fifth centuries. The Donatists refused to accept the sacraments and spiritual authority of priests and bishops who were traditores during the persecution. The traditores had returned to positions of authority under Constantine I; according to the Donatists, sacraments administered by the traditores were invalid. Whether the sacrament of Penance could reconcile a traditor to full communion was questioned, and the church's position was that the sacrament could. According to the Donatists, serious sin would permanently disqualify a man from leadership {without re-baptism ??}. Augustine of Hippo campaigned against Donatism as bishop; through his efforts, orthodoxy gained the upper hand. According to Augustine and the church, the validity of sacraments was a property of the priesthood independent of individual character. Influenced by the Old Testament, he believed in discipline as a means of education. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) taught that in the divine sacrifice of the Holy Mass "is contained and immolated, in an unbloody manner, the same Christ that offered Himself in a bloody manner upon the altar of the Cross. Hence, it is the same victim, the same sacrificing-priest who offers Himself now through the ministry of priests and who once offers Himself upon the Cross". The worth of the sacrifice does not depend by the celebrating priest (or bishop), but on the "worth of the victim and on the dignity of the chief priest- no other than Jesus Christ Himself". Донатизм. Донати́зм (лат. Donatismus) — церковный раскол в Карфагенской церкви, начавшийся в первом десятилетии IV века и сохранившийся до мусульманского завоевания. Причиной раскола стала реакция части христиан на поведение тех клириков, которые в силу разных причин во время диоклетиановских гонений пошли на сотрудничество с властями Римской империи. Главным действующим лицом на начальном этапе был епископ Нумидийский Донат. У донатистов сложилась собственная экклезиология: они учили, что главным признаком истинной церкви является святость, и что действительны только те таинства, которые совершаются праведным епископом (епископом, находящимся в Церкви). Предпосылки раскола. Ещё в III веке Тертуллиан и Киприан задавались вопросом о зависимости действенности таинств от принадлежности человека к Церкви. Они высказывали мысль, что таинства, в том числе и такие важнейшие как крещение и посвящение в сан, не имеют силу, если священнослужитель находится вне Церкви. У многих христиан гонения на них порождали стремление к мученичеству. Однако среди них находились такие, даже священнослужители, кто так или иначе повиновались требованиям властей. В начале IV века преследования христиан достигли максимальной силы. В 303 году тетрархи Диоклетиан и Максимиан, Галерий и Констанций Хлор издали эдикт, отменяющий права христиан и требующий от них соблюдения традиционных римских религиозных практик и началось Великое гонение на христиан. Эдикт требовал от христиан, помимо прочего, отдать имеющиеся у них священные книги для последующего их сожжения. Это требование вызвало особенно сильное негодование христиан, но многие не смогли противостоять. В такой обстановке повиновение требованиям властей стало расцениваться как предательство (лат. traditores) Церкви. Было заявлено, что пресвитеры и епископы, совершившие это отступничество, отныне не вправе совершать таинства. Большая группа христиан, находившихся в тюрьме в Карфагене, отказалась от евхаристического общения с такими священниками. (...) Донатисты считали себя наследниками Церкви эпохи гонений. Если вначале донатисты искали признания светских властей, то позднее сформировалась идея о том, что истинная Церковь всегда гонима со стороны государства, что это Божий народ, страдающий от самого начала мироздания (убийство Авеля Каином), что истинная Церковь — это «Церковь мучеников», «праведный остаток», «Церковь святых». Они отвергали союз Церкви с государственной властью. Даже христианские императоры, по их мнению, были предшественниками антихриста. Агиографические памятники показывают, что мученичество для донатистов было важным компонентом идентичности и одновременно инструментом ведения полемики. Донатистам IV — начала V века агиография помогала привыкнуть к мысли о враждебности всего окружающего мира. Хорошо заметно стремление выстроить преемство с мучениками прошлого и оправдать свою изолированность, смешивая оппонентов (кафоликов и империю) воедино и вынося им общий приговор. Так, в дополнение к критике за отступничество на кафоликов возлагалась и вина за организацию кровопролития. Гробницы мучеников-донатистов становились местами массовых паломничеств. (...) // popular millennialism ?? // For the Donatists, the Church is here and now without spot or blemish. They neglected to observe the tension that exists between the present state of the Church and its eschatological state. For Augustine, the Church is still the Church of sinners on Earth; it is composed of two parts, one of which has the Sacraments without grace, the other the Sacraments with grace {??}. The advance in sacramental theology and ecclesiology {??} made by Augustine in response to the Donatists was of great importance for the development of theology in the Middle Ages. FAUL, D. - New Catholic Encyclopedia - DONATISM // Donatism demonstrates the continuance in the West of the biblical rigorist and individualist pattern of early Christianity that placed individual holiness under the guidance of the spirit as its highest ideal {??}. The Donatists were the true successors of Tertullian and Cyprian in the African church, and they were protesters. Church and state must always be separate. Martyrdom must be accepted as a Christian duty {??}. As far as the Donatist was concerned, the conversion of Constantine might never have taken place. In addition, Donatism, unlike any other Christian movement in the Roman Empire, gave scope for revolutionary stirrings among the peasantry, for it expressed the peasants' hopes for the great reversal of material fortunes that would presage the millennium {??}. Its forceful repression by church and secular authorities also provided precedents for the persecution of heresy in the Middle Ages and in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation periods. W. H. C. Frend (1987) - Encyclopedia of Religion Frend, W. - DONATISM // Donatist, a member of a Christian group in North Africa that broke with the Roman Catholics in 312 over the election of Caecilian as bishop of Carthage; the name derived from their leader, Donatus (d. c. 355). Historically, the Donatists belong to the tradition of early Christianity that produced the Montanist {new prophetic revelations, Holy Spirit} and Novatianist movements in Asia Minor and the Melitians in Egypt. They opposed state interference in church affairs, and, through the peasant warriors called Circumcellions, they had a program of social revolution combined with eschatological hopes {??}. Martyrdom following a life of penance was the goal of the religiously minded Donatist. Despite almost continuous pressure from successive Roman, Vandal, and Byzantine rulers of North Africa, the Donatist church survived until the extinction of Christianity in North Africa in the early European Middle Ages. The ultimate causes of the schism were both doctrinal and social. Throughout the 3rd century the prevailing tradition in the African church had regarded the church as a body of the elect. This view, which was espoused by Cyprian and developed in response to earlier controversy, had as its corollary the belief that the validity of sacerdotal acts depended on the presence of the Holy Spirit in the minister and that a minister who was not in a state of grace could not administer a valid sacrament. At the same time, riches and sin had tended to become identified; mammon and the Roman world were equally to be shunned. Encyclopaedia Britannica - Donatist religion // The tendency toward Donatist separation from the Catholic Church was caused by a concern for personal holiness. The only true church was fundamentally made up of the "communion of saints." Genuine holiness in a church's communion was the overriding characteristic which made unity possible and binding. It was the contention of the Donatists that, "the church was defined as 'pure,' for if it was the only body in the world in which the Holy Spirit resided, how could its members fail to be pure?" This concept of the church sought to uphold the ideal of the Gospel in which Christ commanded his people. "You, therefore, must be perfect, as your Heavenly Father is perfect. " The rise of imperial Christianity and the subsequent influx of 'common' Christians laid the foundation for the impetus to schism. It was the position of the Donatist church that the Catholic community was a "puppet of the secular government, an instrument of political ends, polluted by a consistent record of compromise with worldliness." Whereas imperial Christianity had led some to desert monasticism as the expression of their rejection of the new order {isolation}, others, such as the Donatists, declared the church at large to be corrupt and themselves to be the only true church {"cult"}. In defense of their separation they made it a practice to quote the Divine command: "Come out from among them and be ye separate from them, and touch not the unclean thing." Augustine would make it part of his task to show how the church was a mixture of both good and evil, an institution for sanctifying the masses, not merely a community of sanctified persons. While both the Donatists and the Catholic agreed that Noah's Ark prefigured redemption throught the one Church; it gave the Donatists satisfaction to think the Ark contained only eight people. (...) It would be to the writings of Cyprian of Carthage, that the Donatists would turn for support. Cyprian, the bishop of Carthage, was martyred in 258 and represented, both in his writings and, particularly, in his death, the archetypal contrast to an apostate, traditor. One of the most popular books of Augustine's day, especially amongst the Donatist, being the Acts which included Cyprian. The literary works of Cyprian, and the Donatist writers who followed him, were concerned with ritual purity and "the fear of a sudden loss of spiritual potency through contact with an 'unclean' thing." It was part of a severe African fervour which maintained a "stubborn protest against the best of what was secular." The theology and practice of Cyprian, however, had its roots in the late second century writer Tertullian. Particularly important to this present subject is Tertullian's theological influence in the areas of the church and sacraments. In terms of ecclesiology, G.S.M. Walker has stated that, for Tertullian, Ecclesiastical unity must have a point of origin, since the apostolic church is founded on the apostles. Tertullian pertinently asks heretical sects to indicate the source of their existence, and if they wish to link themselves with the apostolic age, to show an episcopal succession deriving its authority from some apostolic figure at the beginning of the line. The succession of bishops ultimately runs back through the apostles to Christ, and from Christ to God. Thus, the Church and its sacraments are linked to God in this succession as the "real extension of the life of God." Darryl J. Pigeon - CYPRIAN, AUGUSTINE AND THE DONATIST SCHISM // Donatus Magnus [Донат Великий] (d c 355; heretic). Donatus Magnus, also known as Donatus of Casae Nigrae, became leader of a schismatic sect known as the Donatists in North Africa. He is believed to have died in exile around 355. Little is known of his early life because of the complete loss of his correspondence and written works. He first appears in Church records as Donatus of Casae Nigrae in October 313 when Pope Miltiades found him guilty of re-baptizing clergy who had lapsed and of forming a schism within the Church. Donatus was consecrated in 313 AD as Bishop of Carthage and Primate of North Africa, the leader of the Christian sect which came to be known as the Donatist sect, even though Donatus was not the founding leader, but rather followed the founding leader Majorinus. The background to the controversy was the wave of persecutions of Christians by the Roman Emperor Diocletian. At that time some Church leaders - unwilling to endure torture or death and become martyrs - had been ready to take such acts as worshipping the gods of the old pantheon, considered idols by Christians, or surrendering church books and property to the imperial authorities. Such people became known as “traditors” ("surrenderers"). One of these "traditors", named Caecilian, had returned to the fold of the Church once the persecutions ended, and was consecrated Bishop of Carthage and Primate of North Africa. Those of the faithful who refused to accept the authority of such a spiritual leader raised Majorinus as a rival bishop; however, Majorinus died shortly after being consecrated, and it fell to Donatus to take his place and continue the struggle. The schism between the two Christian wings centered on the status of traditore clergy. The Donatists contended that traditores could not be reinstated without being re-baptized and re-ordained to take office. They also contended that church rituals performed by traditores were invalid. Therefore, persons who were baptized, ordained or consecrated {by these people ??} should not be recognized by the Church. // Donatism. Donatism was a Christian sect leading to schism in the Roman Catholic Church, in the region of the Church of Carthage, from the fourth to the sixth centuries AD. Donatists argued that Christian clergy must be faultless for their ministry to be effective and their prayers and sacraments to be valid. (...) Donatism after Donatus. In 347 Donatus was exiled to Gaul until his death c. 355. At the time when Donatus' tenure ended, the Donatist Church was the dominant Christian Church in North Africa – but suffered from internal dissensions as well as the actions of the Catholic Church aimed at reincorporating the sect and thus unifying North African Christianity. The Circumcellions were bands of nomadic anti-Roman rebels, Punic-speaking bandits from the lower strata of society, who supported Donatism and were sometimes led by Donatist clergy. However, they broke out of control, attacking Roman landlords and colonists and redistributing goods. Their support for the Donatists caused the Donatists to be identified with them, leading officials to take punitive action against the Donatist Church. Further, the Donatist church splintered into two main groups, reducing its effectiveness as a church. Later theological thought. Protestant historians have noted the parallel between the Donatist debates and Reformation debates that broke out in Europe over a millennium later, leading to the formation of Protestant churches.

* Circumcellions [Agonistici, extremists; Циркумцеллионы, агонистики] (IV). The Circumcellions or Agonistici (as called by Donatists) were bands of Roman Christian extremists in North Africa in the early to mid-4th century. They were considered heretical by the Catholic Church. They were initially concerned with remedying social grievances, but they became linked with the Donatist sect. They condemned poverty and slavery, and advocated canceling debt and freeing slaves. The term "Circumcellions" may have been coined or mocked by critics who referred to them as "circum cellas euntes", they go around larders, because "they roved about among the peasants, living on those they sought to indoctrinate." The Circumcellions first appeared about 317, and were active primarily in Numidia, and Mauretania Sitifensis. They promoted ideas of social reform along with eschatological hopes. Optatus, Bishop of Milevis, says that around 340 they started an uprising directed at creditors and slave owners. They regarded those among them killed when the disturbance was put down, as martyrs. Augustine of Hippo likened them to a rustic mob encouraging violence against landlords. They regarded martyrdom as the true Christian virtue, and thus disagreed with the Episcopal see of Carthage on the primacy of chastity, sobriety, humility, and charity. Instead, they focused on bringing about their own martyrdom. On occasion, members of this group assaulted Roman legionaries or armed travelers with simple wooden clubs to provoke them into attacking and martyring them. Others interrupted courts of law and verbally provoked the judge so that he would order their immediate execution (a normal punishment at the time for contempt of court). In esoteric circles the martyrdom and death refers to the sacrifice and death of the ego, which is often misunderstood by critics as referring to physical death.{bollocks} [citation needed] Views. Because it is written in the Gospel of John that Jesus had told Peter to put down his sword in the Garden of Gethsemane (John 18:11), the Circumcellions avoided bladed weapons and used clubs, which they called "Israelites". Using their "Israelites", the Circumcellions would attack random travelers on the road, while shouting "Laudate Deum!" ("Praise God!" in Latin). The object of these random beatings was to provoke the victim to kill them, thereby becoming "martyrs". They preferred to be known as agonistici ("fighters (for Christ)"). "Agonistici" are not to be confused with agnostics: the first term is based on "agon", the second on "gnosis".[citation needed] Циркумцеллионы. Циркумцеллио́ны (лат. Circumcelliones, от слов Августина «qui circum cellas vagantur» — «вокруг сельских жилищ бродящие», иначе агонистики, греч. αγωνιστικοί — «способные к борьбе») — участники радикального христианского движения, распространившегося на территории римских провинций в Северной Африке в IV—V веках н. э. Циркумцеллионами назывались первоначально бродячие во имя Христа аскеты, называвшие себя воинами Христа и считавшие своей обязанностью вести борьбу против всякой неправды, выдвигая лозунг защиты всех обиженных и угнетённых. Ряды циркумцеллионов пополнялись в основном выходцами из бедного сельского населения и колонов. Уходя от мирских дел, они принципиально становились в оппозицию официальной церкви, вели борьбу против ортодоксальных клириков, разрушали церковные здания. Протестуя против социального неравенства, выступая против землевладельцев и кредиторов, освобождая рабов, уничтожая долговые обязательства, они отказывались от труда в сельском хозяйстве, а жить стремились за счёт подаяний сельских общин. При всем при этом свою социальную борьбу они обосновывали своими религиозными воззрениями. В своей борьбе агонистики позволяли себе грабить и убивать богатых и высокопоставленных людей. Они нередко возглавляли крупные восстания колонов, сельской бедноты и рабов против императорских властей (например, восстание в Нумидии около 340 года под руководством Аксидо и Фазира, восстание в начале V века). Агонистики стремились к мученичеству и принятию смерти за Христа. При этом, основываясь на стихе «Но Иисус сказал Петру: вложи меч в ножны» (Иоанн, 18:11), они, как правило, избегали железного оружия и вооружались в основном дубинками. Преследуемые государственной властью донатисты нашли в агонистиках поддержку, наложившую неизгладимое пятно на всех последователей Доната, хотя большинство из них и не принимало участия в преступлениях циркумцеллионов. // Циркумциллионы. Циркумциллионы — «бродящие вокруг домов»; «монашеская» разновидность агонистиков — радикального крыла в еретической христианской секте донатистов, возникшей в Северной Африке в IV-V вв. Циркумциллионами их прозвало местное христианское население, сами же они именовали себя «воинами Христовыми» (milites Christi). В основе своей циркумциллионы были потомками древних пунийцев из слоев простонародья, отличались крайним аскетизмом, жестокостью и даже изуверством. Первые упоминания о них относятся к 345 г. С дубинами в руках они бродили около селений и добывали себе пропитание то милостыней, а то и грабежом. Сами дубины имели для них религиозно-символическое значение и назывались «израилями», в память о жезлах древнееврейских пророков. Отличались чрезмерным стремлением к мученичеству, нападали на язычников в дни их праздников, были склонны к разнообразным формам фанатизма и участию в массовых беспорядках. XPOHOC - Циркумциллионы

* Tascodrugites ['quietists'; Пассалоринхиты, Таскодругиты] (IV/V). The Tascodrugites (Latin Tascodrugitae, Tascodrugi) were a sect active in Galatia in the fourth and fifth centuries AD, and possibly as late as the ninth. Ancient sources present them variously as Gnostics or heterodox Christians. Most likely they were Montanists. Пассалоринхиты. Пассалоринхи́ты (лат. passalorynchitæ) или таскодруги́ты (лат. tascodrugitæ) — еретики конца IV — начала V века, описанные Филастрием в книге «Liber de Haeresibus» и Августином в книге «De Haeresibus ad Quodvultdeum Liber Unus». Пассалоринхиты считали необходимым условием спасения человека — жизнь человека в тишине. При каждом постороннем звуке пассалоринхиты прикладывали палец снизу к носу, закрывая уста. Августин объясняет, что по этой причине они и получили своё название — лат. passalorynchitæ, которое было образовано от двух греческих слов: др.-греч. «затычка, кляп» (Августина перевел как «колышек») + др.-греч. «морда, клюв» (Августина перевел как «нос»). Филастрий пишет о том, что причину своего молчания пассалоринхиты объясняли словами Священного Писания: «Положи, Господи, охрану устам моим, и огради двери уст моих» (Пс. 140:3). О численности пассалоринхитов Филастрий и Августин ничего не сообщают. Епифаний Кипрский в «Панарионе», где всего описано им 80 ересей, не выделяет пассалорнхитов в отдельную ересь, а пишет о них в главе, посвященной ереси Монтана; он пишет, что пассалорнхитами называются или монтанисты, или квинтиллиане. Епифаний приводит другое название пассалоринхитов — «таскодругиты» это название по следующей причине: еретики «таском» называют «колышек», а «друнгом» — «нос» или «ноздри». Во время молитвы, будто бы ради печального выражения лица и самовольной праведности, они кладут так называемый указательный палец на нос, некоторые и назвали их «таскодругитами», то есть «закладывающими нос». Тимофей Константинопольский в своей книге пересказывает сказанное о таскодругитах Епифанием.

* Photinus [of Sirmium; Фотин Сирмийский] (d 376). Photinus was a Christian bishop of Sirmium in Pannonia Secunda (today the town Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia), best known for denying the incarnation of Christ, thus being considered a heresiarch by the Catholic Church. His name became synonymous in later literature for someone asserting that Christ was not God. His teachings are mentioned by various ancient authors, like Ambrosiaster (Pseudo-Ambrose), Hilary of Poitiers, Socrates Scholasticus, Sozomen, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, John Cassian, Sulpicius Severus, Jerome, Vigilius of Thapsus and many others. None of his writings are extant and must be reconstructed through his critics. Photinus grew up in Ancyra in Galatia, where he was a student and later a deacon of bishop Marcellus. Marcellus, in later life a staunch opponent of Arianism, was excommunicated and deposed in 336 but rehabilitated by the Synod of Serdica in 343, which also made Photinus bishop of Sirmium. In 344, the Synod of Antioch deposed Marcellus and drew up the Macrostich, a creed which listed their beliefs and objections to Marcellus's doctrines (among others). R. P. C. Hanson (1973) described Photinus' Christology as consistent with the early teachings of Marcellus, between 340 and 350. (... doctrine, see Photianism) Synods held in 345 and 347 excommunicated Photinus, but Photinus remained in office, due to his popular support. A synod at Sirmium was held and Hilarius of Poitiers quotes some of its Arian propositions. Photinus appealed to emperor Constantius II. At another synod in Sirmium in 351, Photinus argued with the semi-Arian Basil of Ancyra and Photinus was deposed on charges of Sabellianism and Adoptionism. He was anathematised and sent into exile, where he wrote several theological works. He returned to his see during the reign of Emperor Julian, who wroted him an approving letter from Julian the Apostate in AD 362, which attacked Diodore of Tarsus, then engaged in combatting Julian's attempts to de-Christianize the empire, and began: "O Photinus, you at any rate seem to maintain what is probably true, and come nearest to being saved, and do well to believe that he whom one holds to be a god can by no means be brought into the womb. But Diodorus, a charlatan priest of the Nazarene, when he tries to give point to that nonsensical theory about the womb by artifices and juggler's tricks, is clearly a sharp-witted sophist of that creed of the country-folk." Ambrosiaster, in the next generation, probably referred to this letter when he commented that Photinus 'because he did not regard Christ as God on the grounds that he was born, he appears wise to the worldly.' According to Jerome, Emperor Valentinian I (364-375) exiled Photinus again. In about 365, a letter from Liberius, bishop of Rome, to several Macedonian bishops mentions a bishop called Photinus among the latter. It is unlikely that this refers to Photinus, bishop of Sirmium, whose see was located in Pannonia, and not Macedonia. After being exiled by Valentinian, Photinus settled in his native Galatia and his doctrines, Photinianism, died in the West. By the time of Augustine, a "Photinian" was anyone who believed Christ was a mere man. Фотин Сирмийский. Фоти́н Сирми́йский (лат. Photinus Sirmium; умер в 375) — епископ Сирмия в римской провинции Нижняя Паннония, ученик анкирского епископа Маркелла. Фотин утверждал, подобно Павлу Самосатскому, что Слово Божие не имеет личного бытия и не родилось от Отца прежде всех веков, а Христос — простой человек, одушевлённый только Словом Божиим. Фотин был осуждён не только православными епископами на соборах Антиохийском (341), Медиоланском соборе (346) и на Медиоланском соборе (348), но и арианами на соборе Сирмийском (351). Умер в ссылке в 375 году. Последователи Фотина — фотиниане. На Втором Вселенском соборе в Константинополе в 381 году, уже после смерти Фотина, учение его было также анафематствовано.

* Фотиниане [human Christ, adoptionism, modalism; Фотинианство; Photinianism] (IV). Фотиниа́не (др.-греч. φωτεινιανοί; лат. photiniani) — последователи религиозного течения в христианстве в IV веке, ереси, названной по имени его основоположника — Фотина Сирмийского. По учению фотиниан, Иисус Христос хотя и зародился во чреве Девы Марии от Духа Святого, но был только человек. Эту ересь подвергли осуждению и никейцы, и ариане на Антиохийском соборе 344 года и на Миланском соборе 348 года. Согласно 7 правилу Лаодикийского собора 360 года фотиниан в Церковь надо принимать через миропомазание. Учение фотиниан было предано анафеме на Константинопольском соборе 381 года: "... и да предается анафеме всякая ересь, и именно: ересь евномиан, аномеев, ариан или евдоксиан, полуариан или духоборцев, савеллиан, маркеллиан, фотиниан, и аполинариан. Борьба с фотинианами продолжалась очень долго, свидетельством чему служат запрещения императоров Грациана и Феодосия I, запрещение против далматских фотиниан 418 года, постановление Арльского собора 452 года о перекрещивании фотиниан. На юге Франции и в Испании фотиниане слились с бонозианцами и адопционистами. Фотиниане описаны Филастрием в книге «Liber de Haeresibus» и Августином в книге «De Haeresibus ad Quodvultdeum Liber Unus»; у первого автора это 65 ересь, у второго автора это 45 ересь. У Епифания Кипрского в книге Панарион и у Иоанна Дамаскина в книге «О ста ересях вкратце» фотиниане это 71 ересь. Исидор Севильский (начало VII века) в труде «Этимологии» (лат. «Etymologiae») описал фотиниан как 37 ересь. // At the time Photinus voiced his own theological system, according to which Jesus was not divine and the Logos did not exist before the conception of Jesus. For Photinus the Logos was simply a mode of manifestation of the Father {modalism}, hence he denied the pre-existence of Christ and saw theophanies in the Old Testament as of the father, and the image of the "Son of God" (actually, Son of man) in front of (and distinct from) the Ancient of Days as prediction only {Dan. 7:13-14}. Photinus's apprehension of God as Father, and his teachings about the nature of Jesus Christ are maybe more complex than has been thought. The church historian Socrates Scholasticus identifies Photinus' beliefs with those of Sabellius, Paul of Samosata and Marcellus. This also was presumably misapprehension of Photinus' doctrine about Jesus. Ambrose, among the many accusing Photinus of reducing Christ to a man adopted by God, notes that his favourite verses were 1 Timothy 2:5 and John 8:40. In the controversies against Polish Socinian influence in 18th-Century Photinus was repeatedly cast as a heretical predecessor of early Unitarians for his denial of the pre-existence of Christ. (Photinus)

* Pelagianism [denial of original sin, free will vs divine grace; Пелагианство] (IV-V). Pelagianism is a heterodox Christian theological position that holds that the original sin did not taint human nature and that humans have the free will to achieve human perfection without divine grace. Pelagius (c.  355 – c.  420 AD), a British ascetic and philosopher, taught that God could not command believers to do the impossible, and therefore it must be possible to satisfy all divine commandments. He also taught that it was unjust to punish one person for the sins of another; therefore, infants are born blameless. Pelagius accepted no excuse for sinful behavior and taught that all Christians, regardless of their station in life, should live unimpeachable, sinless lives. To a large degree, “Pelagianism” was defined by its opponent Augustine, and exact definitions remain elusive. Although Pelagianism had considerable support in the contemporary Christian world, especially among the Roman elite and monks, it was attacked by Augustine and his supporters, who had opposing views on grace, predestination and free will. Augustine proved victorious in the Pelagian controversy; Pelagianism was decisively condemned at the 418 Council of Carthage and is still regarded as heretical by the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. For centuries afterward, "Pelagianism" has been used since ancient times in various forms as a pejorative accusation of heresy for Christians who hold unorthodox beliefs, but it has undergone reassessment by recent scholarship. Пелагианство. Пелагианство или Пелагионизм (лат. Pelagianismus) — богословская теория (доктрина), которую выдвинул западный богослов Пелагий, кельт по происхождению. Пелагианские споры начались в начале V века и были первым большим богословским кризисом, возникшим среди западных латиноязычных христиан. Согласно этой теории, первородный грех не влияет на человеческую природу, а человек не ограничен в свободе воли и по-прежнему способен выбирать добро или зло без помощи Бога. Таким образом, грех Адама был «плохим примером» для своего потомства, но его действия не имели других последствий. Pelagianism is a heterodox Christian theological position which holds that the original sin did not taint human nature and that humans have the free will to achieve human perfection without divine grace. Pelagius (c. 355 – c. 420 AD), a British ascetic and philosopher, taught that God could not command believers to do the impossible, and therefore it must be possible to satisfy all divine commandments. He also taught that it was unjust to punish one person for the sins of another; therefore, infants are born blameless. Pelagius accepted no excuse for sinful behavior and taught that all Christians, regardless of their station in life, should live unimpeachable, sinless lives. To a large degree, “Pelagianism” was defined by its opponent Augustine and exact definitions remain elusive. Although Pelagianism had considerable support in the contemporary Christian world, especially among the Roman elite and monks, it was attacked by Augustine and his supporters who had opposing views on grace, predestination and free will. Augustine proved victorious in the Pelagian controversy; Pelagianism was decisively condemned at the 418 Council of Carthage and is still regarded as heretical by the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. For centuries afterward, "Pelagianism" has been used since ancient times in various forms as a pejorative accusation of heresy for Christians who hold unorthodox beliefs, but it has undergone reassessment by recent scholarship. // Пелагианство. Христианская ересь, названа по имени своего основателя монаха Пелагия. Возникла в конце IV в. Пелагианцы проповедовали свободу воли и выбора {human choice for virtue}, преуменьшая тем самым роль "божественной благодати", то есть фактически отвергали участие церкви в нравственном совершенствовании человека. Отрицали божественное предопределение. Считали, что первородный грех не может иметь принципиального значения для человеческого рода, ибо является личным делом самого Адама, поэтому грехопадение не до конца извратило положительные качества человека и, таким образом, природа человека не является изначально грешной. Благодать в понимании пелагианцев представляла собой совокупность всего доброго, что бог дает человеку в природе и в истории, начиная с самого существования и кончая фактом откровения высшей истины через Христа. Пелагианство противоречило взглядам ортодоксальной церкви и прежде всего учению Августина. Учение Пелагия, высказанное им весьма осторожно, привлекло к нему многих, в том числе патриция Целестия. В 411 г. Пелагий и Целестий перенесли свою деятельность в Африку и Палестину. Здесь они были обвинены в ереси, и Пелагий на карфагенском соборе присужден к отлучению от церкви. Пелагию удалось на некоторое время оправдать себя и даже приобрести расположение римского папы Зосимы, но указом императора Гонория в 418 г. пелагианство было окончательно признано ересью, подтверждено отлучение Пелагия от церкви. Пелагий, оставшийся на Востоке, вскоре умер. Пелагианство нашло себе последователей в лице нескольких итальянских епископов, особенно в лице Юлиана Экланскго. который выступил как ревностный толкователь и защитник учения Пелагия. // Пелагий (Морган) (ок. 360 422). Британский монах, основатель ереси пелагианства. Достоверно известно только его прибытие в Италию в начале V в. и его последующая деятельность. В Италии он вел строгую монашескую жизнь и был в дружбе с св. Павлином, епископом ноланским. Пораженный царившей всюду распущенностью нравов, Пелагий написал ряд сочинений, где утверждал, что неодолимого греха не существует. Главные сочинения Пелагия: толкование на ап. Павла и послание к Димитриаде. // Pelagianism is the unbiblical teaching that Adam’s sin did not affect future generations of humanity. According to Pelagianism, Adam’s sin was solely his own, and Adam’s descendants did not inherit a sinful nature passed down to them. God creates every human soul directly, and therefore every human soul starts out in innocence, free from sin. We are not basically bad, says the Pelagian heresy; we are basically good. (...) Pelagianism’s underlying fault is its reliance on human freedom and willpower instead of the grace of God. In saying that we all possess an inherent power to choose holiness for ourselves, Pelagius made the grace of God of no effect. The Bible says that, before the grace of God saves us, we are “dead” in our sins (Ephesians 2:1); Pelagianism says it’s not so bad as all that. We can choose to obey God’s commands, and, if we only knew our true nature, we could please God and save ourselves. Pelagius and his false doctrine were fought by Augustine and condemned by the Council of Carthage in AD 418, the same year that Pelagius was excommunicated. The doctrine did not disappear, however, and had to be condemned again by the Council of Ephesus (431) and later church councils. Pelagianism survives to this day and shows up in any teaching that says following Christ is primarily a choice we make apart from any supernatural intervention of God’s grace. In any age and in any form, Pelagianism is unscriptural and should be rejected. Got Questions - What is Pelagianism?

* Original sin [Augustine; Первородный/прародительский грех] (IV-V). Original sin is an Augustine Christian doctrine that says that everyone is born sinful. This means that they are born with a built-in urge to do bad things and to disobey God. It is an important doctrine within the Roman Catholic Church. The concept of Original Sin was explained in depth by St Augustine and formalised as part of Roman Catholic doctrine by the Councils of Trent in the 16th Century. Original sin is not just this inherited spiritual disease or defect in human nature; it's also the 'condemnation' that goes with that fault. (...) In traditional Christian teaching, original sin is the result of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God when they ate a forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden. BBC - Religions - Original sin

* Люцифериане [Люциферизм, приверженцы епископа Люцифера <> люциферианизм; Luciferians] (IV-V). Люцифериа́не (лат. Luciferiani) — приверженцы епископа Люцифера из Кальяри (остров Сардиния); христианский раскол конца IV века, распространившийся в Италии, Испании, Галлии и Африке; противники ариан. С точки зрения Аврелия Августина (IV—V в.) были ересью западного происхождения и заняли 81-е место в его списке ересей лат. «De Hæresibus ad Quodvuldeus. Liber unus» («Ереси, попущением Бога, в одной книге»). Люцифер Каларийский был приверженцем клеймившего арианство св. Афанасия, за что около 355 года императором Констанцием был отправлен в ссылку. Семь лет спустя, когда Александрийский собор 362 года обещал возвращение епископских кафедр раскаявшимися арианам, Люцифер в знак протеста отделился от церкви. Он умер в 371 году схизматиком (отлучённым), но его приверженцы в Сардинии сделали из него местночтимого святого. Труды Люцифера Каларийского были изданы в издательстве «Hartel» («Corp. scriptorum ecclesiat. lat.», т. XIV, Берлин, 1886). // The Luciferians (362–c. 400 CE) were a community of Christians that rigorously adhered to the Nicene Creed and rejected the clemency granted to many bishops at the Council of Alexandria in 362 CE. They were persecuted by other Nicene Christians in the 360s and 370s CE; in 383/384 CE, two Luciferian presbyters delivered an extant petition to Theodosius I, who ordered persecution of them to cease. (Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online - Luciferians)

* Lucifer of Cagliari [Люцифер из Кальяри] (d 370/1). Lucifer of Cagliari (Latin: Lucifer Calaritanus, Italian: Lucifero da Cagliari) was a bishop of Cagliari in Sardinia known for his passionate opposition to Arianism. He is venerated as a Saint in Sardinia, though his status remains controversial.

* Массилианство [Полупелагианство; Massilians, Semi-Pelagians, salvation by human effort] (V). Полупелагианство (Массилианство, Семипелагианство) Христианская ересь. Зародилась в 20-е годы V в. в Южной Галлии, в Марселе. Основана и возглавлялась церковным писателем Иоанном Еремитом. Полупелагианство занимало срединное положение между учениями Августина и Пелагия. Полупелагианцы утверждали, что для начала верования благодать не нужна. Первородный грех ухудшил изначальную природу человека, но не настолько, чтобы он не мог желать и быть способным и после падения делать добро. В то же время полупелгианцы не допускали, чтобы человек мог спастись без благодати. Благодать сообщается человеку только в том случае, когда он прилагает максимальные усилия для того, чтобы стать достойным ее {human effort -> award}. Полупелагианство было признано правильным на соборе в Арле в 475 г., но на соборе в Оронте в 529 г., одновременно с утверждением учения Августина, полупелагианство было определено как материальная ересь, т.е. неумышленное заблуждение в важных вопросах веры. Semi-Pelagianism. Semi-Pelagianism (or Semipelagianism) is a Christian theological and soteriological school of thought on salvation. Semipelagian thought stands in contrast to the earlier Pelagian teaching about salvation, the Pelagianism (in which people achieve their own salvation by their own means), which had been dismissed as heresy. Semipelagianism in its original form was developed as a compromise between Pelagianism and the teaching of Church Fathers such as Saint Augustine, who taught that people cannot come to God without the grace of God. In semipelagian thought, therefore, a distinction is made between the beginning of faith and the increase of faith. Semipelagian thought teaches that the latter half – growing in faith – is the work of God, while the beginning of faith is an act of free will, with grace supervening only later. It too was labeled heresy by the Western Church at the Second Council of Orange in 529. Catholicism teaches that the beginning of faith involves an act of free will, that the initiative comes from God, but requires free collaboration on the part of man: "The fatherly action of God is first on his own initiative, and then follows man's free acting through his collaboration". "Since the initiative belongs to God in the order of grace, no one can merit the initial grace of forgiveness and justification, at the beginning of conversion. Moved by the Holy Spirit and by charity, we can then merit for ourselves and for others the graces needed for our sanctification, for the increase of grace and charity, and for the attainment of eternal life." The term "semi-Pelagianism", a 16th-century coinage, is considered a misnomer by scholars. Proposed alternatives include Massilianism, semi-Augustinianism, anti-Augustinianism, and antipredestinarianism. The historical theological dispute is also known as the Augustinian controversy. "Semi-Pelagianism" has frequently been used in a pejorative sense.

* Агониклиты [Agoniclites] (VII/VIII). Агоникли́ты (др.-греч. «не-» + «колено» + «наклонение, нагибание»; лат. agonyclitae; ст.-слав. колѣнонєпрѣклоньници) — еретики, описанные Иоанном Дамаскиным в книге «О ста ересях вкратце», 91 ересь. Какая численность этих еретиков и как долго они существовали, Иоанн Дамаскин не сообщает, он говорит лишь, что еретичество их заключалось в том, что во время любых молитв агониклиты не желают преклонять колена, то есть не совершают земные поклоны, но всегда, стоя на прямых ногах, совершают молитвы. Agoniclites. The Agoniclites condemned kneeling as the attitude of prayer and persisted in this opinion though condemned by a synod of Jerusalem in 726. (GB) Bertrand Russell - Mortals and Others

* Echetae ??. The Echetae held it to be a religious duty for monks and nuns to follow the example of Moses and Miriam by celebrating divine service with dancing and exuberant displays of joy, while in all other respects they were orthodox. (GB) Bertrand Russell - Mortals and Others

* Paschasius Radbertus (785-865; theologian). Saint Paschasius Radbertus was a Carolingian theologian and the abbot of Corbie, a monastery in Picardy founded in 657 or 660 by the queen regent Bathilde with a founding community of monks from Luxeuil Abbey. His most well-known and influential work is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist written around 831, entitled De Corpore et Sanguine Domini. He was canonized in 1073 by Pope Gregory VII. (...) De Corpore et Sanguine Domini. The most well-known and influential work of St. Paschasius, De Corpore et Sanguine Domini (written between 831 and 833), is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist. It was originally written as an instructional manual for the monks under his care at Corbie, and is the first lengthy treatise on the sacrament of the Eucharist in the Western world. In it, Paschasius agrees with Ambrose in affirming that the Eucharist contains the true, historical body of Jesus Christ. According to Paschasius, God is truth itself, and therefore, his words and actions must be true. Christ's proclamation at the Last Supper that the bread and wine were his body and blood must be taken literally, since God is truth. He thus believes that the transubstantiation of the bread and wine offered in the Eucharist really occurs. Only if the Eucharist is the actual body and blood of Christ can a Christian know it is salvific. Paschasius believed that the presence of the historical blood and body of Christ allows the partaker a real union with Jesus in a direct, personal, and physical union by joining a person's flesh with Christ's and Christ's flesh with his. To Paschasius, the Eucharist's transformation into the flesh and blood of Christ is possible because of the principle that God is truth; God is able to manipulate nature, as he created it. The book was given to Charles the Bald, the Frankish king, as a present in 844, with the inclusion of a special introduction. The view Paschasius expressed in this work was met with some hostility; Ratramnus wrote a rebuttal by the same name, by order of Charles the Bald, who did not agree with some of the views Paschasius held. Ratramnus believed that the Eucharist was strictly metaphorical; he focused more on the relationship between faith and the newly emerging science. Shortly thereafter, a third monk joined the debate, Rabanus Maurus, which initiated the Carolingian Eucharist Controversy. Ultimately, however, the king accepted Paschasius' assertion, and the substantial presence of Christ in the Eucharist became the authoritative belief in the Roman Catholic faith. Theological contributions. Understanding of the human body. In opposition to other Carolingian authors, Paschasius locates the Imago Dei (the "Image of God") in the whole human being – body as well as soul. This view is in alignment with that of the second-century Church Father Irenaeus. Irenaeus believed that Jesus was the physical embodiment of God; the son is the image of the father. As such, humans represent the image of God not only in soul, but in flesh as well. This view is in opposition to the more accepted view of Origen of Alexandria, who believed that the physical body had no part in the image-relationship. Unlike other theologians of the time, Paschasius does not equate the sanctification process with a metaphysical detachment of the body and the soul. Instead, he believes that the human condition (existing in a physical form) can contribute positively to achieving sanctification. However, he did believe in a form of mitigated dualism, in which the soul plays a larger part in the process than the body. Paschasius believes that life is an opportunity to practice for death; however, the concept that the body is a prison for the soul is practically non-existent in his work, and probably only occurs due to pressure from his peers. Even though he believed that the body has a role in one's sanctification process, he also acknowledged that flesh struggles against God, and thus has the ability to be corrupted. Understanding of Christ's body. Paschasius believes in a distinction between veritas (truth) and figura (form, or appearance). Christ's descent from heaven to earth was a declension from truth to appearance, from the realm of perfection to the realm of imperfection. This would imply that Jesus in flesh is false, and imperfect; however, Paschasius asserted that not every figure is false. Christ is simultaneously both truth and figure because his external, physical self is the figure of the truth, the physical manifestation of the truth that exists in the soul. The person that was Jesus was subject to human needs, just like the rest of humanity. He required to eat, to sleep, and to be in company with others. In addition to this, however, he also performed miracles. These behaviours which Jesus exhibited imply a duality in the concept of "Word made flesh". Miracles, until then only performed by God, the non-physical Truth or Word, were suddenly performed by a physical human being. The relationship between Jesus' humanity and his divinity is rather convoluted; however, it is analogous to the relation of figures (written letters) of words to their spoken counterparts. Therefore, Jesus in physical form is the visual representation, T-R-U-T-H, while his divinity is the spoken sound of those written letters together as a word. // Paschasius Radbertus: 'emphatic realism': claimed that Christ's Eucharistic body was identical with his body in heaven, but he won practically no support; proposed a more spiritual conception of the Divine presence. (Berengar of Tours)

* Tondrakians [Тондракийцы, тондракиты] (IX-XI). Tondrakians were members of an anti-feudal, heretical Christian sect that flourished in medieval Armenia between the early 9th century and 11th century and centered on the district of Tondrak, north of Lake Van in Western Armenia. History. The founder of the movement was Smbat Zarehavantsi, who advocated the abolition of the Church along with all of its traditional rites. Tondrakians denied the immortality of the soul, the afterlife, the church and its feudal rights. They supported property rights for peasants, as well as equality between men and women. Tondrakians organized their communities in much the same fashion as did the early Christians under the Roman Empire during the first three centuries. They also participated in the peasant revolts of the 10th century, particularly in Ayrarat and Syunik. The Tondrakian movement resembled the Paulician movement in many ways, and various scholars consider it a continuation of the Paulician movement under different conditions, when Armenia was independent. The Paulician movement was of a social nature and simultaneously a resistance movement {political}, directed against the Arabs and Byzantines, while the Tondrakian movement was likewise of a social nature and was directed against the developing feudal system. Background. In the early 10th century, many regions of Armenia were undergoing peasant uprisings, which also first began in forms of open social protests, eventually adopting religious aspects. Contemporary historian and eyewitness Hovhanes Draskhanakertsi describes how the peasants of Ayrarat fought against their feudal lords and landowners: destroying their castles and property. Peasant revolts appear also in Syunik. After the construction of Tatev Monastery was completed in 906, the ownership of the adjacent villages was transferred by a special princely edict to the monks of the monastery. Flatly refusing to obey this edict, the peasants of Tsuraberd, Tamalek, Aveladasht and other villages carried on a prolonged struggle against the churchgoers. Several times, this revolt transformed into an open uprising. With the aid of Smbat, the prince of Syunik, the monastery managed after a while to take control of Aveladasht and Tamalek. The struggle to take control of Tsuraberd bore a bloodier nature. Here, the peasants attacked the monastery and plundered it. Smbat eventually suppressed the uprising. However, after a short while, the people of Tsuraberd revolted again. Peasant uprisings continued with interruptions throughout the 10th century. In 990, the King of Syunik, Vasak, burned down Tsuraberd and pacified its inhabitants. This led to the widespread acceptance of the Tondrakian movement among the lower classes of people in the late 10th century. Resurgence. After the suppression of the peasant revolts, the Tondrakians suffered a minor decline. However, by the beginning of the 11th century, the movement enveloped many regions of Armenia. Tondrakian villages and communities appeared {of runaway peasants ??} in Upper Armenia, Vaspurakan, Mokq and other provinces. Historians mention various leaders of the Tondrakians of this time such as Thoros, Ananes, Hakop and Sarkis. The wide acceptance of the movement began to worry secular and spiritual feudal lords, Byzantine authorities and even Muslims. Decline. Armenian secular and spiritual feudal lords joined forces with neighbouring Muslim Arab emirs as well as Byzantines in the persecution of Tondrakians. The movement quickly spread to Shirak, Turuberan, and the Armenian regions of Taron, Hark, and Mananali (subject to Byzantium). After suffering a number of defeats at the hands of Byzantium, most Tondrakians were deported to Thrace {Bulgaria/Greece/Turkey} in the 10th century. Following the Byzantine conquest of the Bagratuni Kingdom of Ani {Armenia} in 1045, the movement experienced a new resurgence, this time within large cities like Ani where they began appealing to the lower ranks of the nobility and the clergy. The Tondrakian movement broke into three different directions during its last years, the most radical of which began advocating atheism as well as doubt in the afterlife and the immortality of the human soul. By the middle of the 11th century, the Byzantine governor of Taron and Vaspurakan, Gregory Magistros, managed to eliminate all remnants of Tondrakians. Historian Aristakes Lastivertsi describes the elimination of Tondrakians in great detail. Beliefs. Tenth century Armenian theologian and monk Gregory of Narek wrote a critical summary of Tondrakian doctrines in his Letter to the Abbot of Kchaw Concerning the Refutation of the Accursed Tondrakians. He lists the following among other accusations: They deny our ordination {anti-sacedotal, anti-hierachical}, which the apostles received from Christ. They deny the Holy Communion as the true body and blood of Christ {Transubstantiation; Eucharist in general ??}. They deny our Baptism as being mere bath water. They consider Sunday as on a level with other days {i.e. Sabbatarians ??}. They refuse genuflection. They deny the veneration of the cross. They ordain each other and thus follow self-conferred priesthood {lay priesthood}. They do not accept marriage as a sacrament. They reject the matagh {Armenia: a lamb or a rooster slated for slaughter as thanksgiving to God} as being a Jewish practice. They are sexually promiscuous. Тондракийцы. Тондракийцы (тондракиты) — христианско-гностическая секта, возникшая в Армении в середине IX века, отрицавшая бессмертие души и во многом носившая антифеодальный характер.

* Canon Episcopi ["канонические сборники Episcopi"] (X). The title canon Episcopi (also capitulum Episcopi) is conventionally given to a certain passage found in medieval canon law. The text possibly originates in an early 10th-century penitential, recorded by Regino of Prüm; it was included in Gratian's authoritative Corpus juris canonici of c. 1140 (Decretum Gratiani, causa 26, quaestio 5, canon 12) and as such became part of canon law during the High Middle Ages. It is an important source on folk belief and surviving pagan customs in Francia on the eve of the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. The folk beliefs described in the text reflect the residue of pre-Christian beliefs about one century after the Carolingian Empire had been Christianized. It does not believe witchcraft as a real physical manifestation; this was an important argument used by the opponents of the witch trials during the 16th century, such as Johann Weyer. The conventional title "canon Episcopi" is based on the text's incipit, and was current from at least the 17th century.

* Gorze Abbey [monastic reform movement; Аббатство Горз] (X). Gorze Abbey was a Benedictine monastery in Gorze in the present arrondissement of Metz, near Metz in Lorraine. It was prominent as the source of a monastic reform movement in the 930s. The Gorze Reform was similar to the Cluniac Reform in that it aimed at a reestablishment of the Rule of St. Benedict, but quite different in several major areas. In particular, whereas Cluny created a centralised system of authority in which the religious houses adopting its reforms became subordinate to Cluny itself, the Gorze reforms preserved the independence of the participating monasteries, and resulted instead in a network of loosely connected affiliations based on several centres, such as Fulda, Niederaltaich, Einsiedeln and St. Emmeram's Abbey in Regensburg. Gorze was also the home of the "chant messin", an early form of Gregorian chant or plainsong, as a part of the liturgy, and also of sacred drama, particularly in connection with the Easter rituals. From the 12th century Gorze ceased to occupy the central spiritual position it had had previously.

* Wazo of Liège [Вазо Льежский] (c 985-1048; bishop). Wazo of Liège was bishop of Liège from 1041 to 1048, and a significant educator and theologian. His life was chronicled by his contemporary Anselm of Liège. During this period Liège became known as an educational center. Wazo, who had himself studied under Heriger of Lobbes, served as scholaster under Notker of Liège before succeeding Notker as bishop. He is noted also for his nuanced approach to cases of heresy (not common in his day). In a letter he wrote to Roger, Bishop of Châlons, he quoted the New Testament Parable of the Tares and argued "the church should let dissent grow with orthodoxy until the Lord comes to separate and judge them" {Nil Sorsky}. He was involved in the period 1021–5 in a controversy with John, canon and provost in Liège; Durandus of Liège, then bishop, had Wazo leave for a time. His election as bishop in 1041 was strongly contested, with Emperor Henry III against him.

* Berengar of Tours [Беренгар Турский] (c 999-1088). Berengar of Tours, in Latin Berengarius Turonensis, was an 11th-century French Christian theologian and archdeacon of Angers, a scholar whose leadership of the cathedral school at Chartres set an example of intellectual inquiry through the revived tools of dialectic that was soon followed at cathedral schools of Laon and Paris. He came into conflict with Church authorities over the doctrine of transubstantiation of the Eucharist. (...) He acquired his fame as much from his blameless and ascetic life as from the success of his teaching. (...) Amid this chorus of praise, a discordant voice began to be heard; it was asserted that Berengar held heretical views on the Eucharist. The first controversies on the nature of the Eucharistic Presence date from the earlier Middle Ages. In the ninth century Paschasius Radbertus claimed that Christ's Eucharistic body was identical with his body in heaven, but he won practically no support. His doctrine was sharply attacked by Ratramnus and Rabanus Maurus, who opposed his emphatic realism, which was sometimes marred by unfortunate comparisons and illustrations, and proposed a more spiritual conception of the Divine presence. As for Berengar, by one account, "Considerably greater stir was provoked ... by the teaching of Berengar, who opposed the doctrine of the Real Presence." But in reality, there are diverse opinions among theologians and historians on this point, and it is not clear that Berengar actually denies the Real Presence, though he does deny transubstantiation. (...) Berengar's position was never diametrically opposed to that of his critics. But the controversy that he aroused forced people to reconsider the ninth-century discussion of the Eucharist, as Paschasius Radbertus had left it, and to clarify the doctrine of transubstantiation. Further, when both Berengar and his critics used the secular disciplines of logic and grammar to express a matter of Christian doctrine, the way was open to the scholasticism of the twelfth century.

* Eudo of Btitanny [Еудо британский ??] (c 1001-1078 ??). Eudes Penthievre ""The Prophet of Brittany" and Comte de Penthrievre" de Brittany Comte de Penthrievre (± 1001-1078) ?? <> Eudo de Stella (died 1150, Breton religious leader and "messiah") ??

* Pataria [Pataranes, Patareni; Патария] (XI). {<> Bosnian Patarines (Bogomils) ??} The pataria was an eleventh-century movement focused on the city of Milan in northern Italy, which aimed to reform the clergy and ecclesiastic government within the city and its ecclesiastical province, in support of Papal sanctions against simony and clerical marriage. Those involved in the movement were called patarini (singular patarino), patarines or patarenes, a word chosen by their opponents, the etymology of which is unclear. The movement, associated with urban unrest in the city of Milan, is generally considered to have begun in 1057 and ended in 1075.}. Патария. Пата́рия — религиозное движение XI в. в североитальянских городах. Получило своё название по наименованию одного из кварталов Милана (Pataria — барахолка, рынок старьёвщиков), который был центром этого движения. Приняло форму религиозной борьбы за Клюнийскую реформу, являлось выступлением ремесленников, городской бедноты против духовенства и сеньоров, тесно связанных с ломбардским духовенством. Было подавлено к 80-м гг. XI в. Патария способствовала образованию городских коммун в Северной Италии (XI — начало XII в.). Дала название ереси патаренов, распространившейся в городах Ломбардии. // Patarine, also spelled Patarene, Italian Patarino, plural Patarini, member of a medieval group of lay craftsmen, tradesmen, and peasants organized in Milan about 1058 to oppose clerical concubinage and marriage; the group later widened its attack to oppose generally the papacy’s moral corruption and temporal powers. The Patarine movement was so called because, under the leadership of Arialdus (Arialdo), a deacon of Milan, its members used to assemble in the Pataria, or ragmen’s quarter of the city (pates being a dialectal word for “rag”). Viewed by the church as heretical, the Patarines, though short-lived in terms of organized activities, became an impetus for a large number of religious-reform movements that arose during the decline of the feudal system and the beginnings of the aspirations to power of the peasant and middle classes. In the 13th century the name was appropriated by the Cathari, who said it came from pati (“to suffer”), because they endured hardship for their faith. Britannica - Patarine medieval reform group // Patarenes may refer to: 1) members of pataria, 11th-century religious movement in the Archdiocese of Milan in northern Italy, 2) heretics known as Cathars to modern scholarship (by polemical extension, and mostly not by writers of Milanese origin), 3) members of the Bosnian Church, considered to be a part of the Cathar movement by Italian writers against heresy. The pataria was an eleventh-century religious movement in the Archdiocese of Milan in northern Italy, aimed at reforming the clergy and ecclesiastic government in the province and supportive of Papal sanctions against simony and clerical marriage. // Large numbers {of Bogomils, persecuted in the Byzantine Empire}, majority of Vlach origin, took refuge in Bosnia and Dalmatia where they were known under the name of Patarenes (Patareni). (Bogomilism) // The sect name “Patarines” as equivalent to “Cathars” is first encountered in the sources in 1179 in canon 27 of the Third Lateran Council. It is reminiscent of the reforming Pataria of eleventh-century Milan. By mid-thirteenth century, the terms Cathari and Patarini had become common and interchangeable in Italy. The question of how and why this happened has produced a great deal of learned discussion which also draws in the problem of the origin of the eleventh-century word Pataria. St. Augustine had mentioned heretics known to him as Paterniani, but they do not seem to enter the question here. Runciman thinks Patarini (or Paterini) might come from patera , a Latin word designating a utensil used in religious services. Guiraud suggests that it might derive from Pater [Father] in the Lord’s Prayer, or be a corruption of Cathari through {.. ??}. Catherine Duvernoy, on the other hand, thinks that Patari gave rise to Cathari. Morghen argues that Patarini became a general term meaning “heretics” and thus was applied to the Cathars, although the Patarine and dualistic heresies were quite different. Werner believes the word must be traced to Greek origins because the agitation of the Pataria gave occasion and impetus to the spread of Bogomil heresy in the eleventh century. Dondaine has recently suggested that the word came from naiepitaa designating a staff in the form of a T which was the mark of pastoral dignity carried by Basilian monks and by “Good Christians” of Bosnia and was also the cross of the patriarch of Constantinople. One medieval derivation of Patarini from pati [suffer] will be found in No. 42, part B. (WE) // Cathar heretics enjoyed influence in various strata of society, including the very highest. (So, about Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, they wrote that Cathars dressed in ordinary clothes were always present in his retinue, so that in the event of a sudden proximity to death, he could receive their blessing). However, the main preaching of the Cathars was, apparently, addressed to the urban lower classes. This is evidenced, in particular, by the names of various sects related to the Cathars: Populicani ("populists") (some researchers see here, however, a spoiled name pavlikian), Piphler (also from "plebs"), Texerantes (weavers), Poor people, Patarens (from rag pickers, symbol of beggars). In their sermon, they said that a truly Christian life is possible only with a community of property. QATARI HERESY. THE CATHAR RELIGION, THE DEATH OF THE CATHARS AND THE CATHAR CASTLES

* Pataria [Патария] (XI). The pataria was an eleventh-century movement focused on the city of Milan in northern Italy, which aimed to reform the clergy and ecclesiastic government within the city and its ecclesiastical province, in support of Papal sanctions against simony and clerical marriage. // PATARINES. Constituents of a religious movement with social overtones originating among the laity and certain sections of the clergy, especially the lower clergy, in northern Italy in the early part of the second half of the 11th century. New Catholic Encyclopedia - Patarines

* Gundolfo [Gundulf; Гундолфо, Гундулф ??] (XI). Gundolfo or Gundulf was a teacher of heretical Christian doctrines in the early 11th century. Of Italian origin, he turned up in the bishopric of Cambrai-Arras in northern France (south of Lille) in 1025 when Bishop Gerard of Florennes discovered that there were heretics in the diocese. These heretics rejected the sacraments of the Catholic Church and claimed for themselves a righteousness by which alone men could be purified and attain salvation. Gundolfo taught that salvation was achieved through a virtuous life of abandoning the world, restraining the appetites of the flesh {abstinence; mortification ??}, earning food by the labor of hands, doing no injury to anyone, and extending charity to everyone of their own faith. They claimed that Gundolfo's teachings were based on the Gospels rather than on Catholic Church dogma. Following a lengthy sermon by Gerard, the heretics recanted their errors and were received back into the Church. The unknown source of Gundolfo's teachings may be compared to Catharism and to the Waldensians. His ultimate fate is unknown.

* Tanchelm [Tanchelm of Antwerp, heretic/rebel priest; Танхельм Антверпенский] (d 1115). Tanchelm (died 1115), also known as Tanchelm of Antwerp, Tanchelijn, Tanquelin or Tanchelin, was a heretical itinerant preacher, critical of the established Roman Catholic church, active in the Low Countries around the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. He opposed the payment of tithes and condemned those priests who lived with women. The followers of Tanchelm, who is reported to have allowed himself to be venerated almost to the point of worship, were still to be found for a period after his death in Antwerp; in 1124 Saint Norbert of Xanten preached against their heresies. // Tanchelm (ook Tanchelijn, Tanchelmus of Tanchelinus) (Zeeland - Antwerpen, 1115) was een middeleeuwse ketter en sekteleider. Het meeste dat we over Tanchelm weten, komt van diegenen die hem bestreden hebben, want zelf heeft hij geen geschriften nagelaten. Hij keerde zich met grote felheid tegen de Kerk en de kerkelijke sacramentenleer. Zo leerde hij dat de sacramenten hun effect misten wanneer ze door onwaardige geestelijken werden toegediend. Tanchelm is wel bekend om zijn antisacerdotalisme. Met grote praal trok hij rond door Vlaanderen. In 1113 werd hij verdreven uit Brugge en vestigde hij zich in Antwerpen, waar hij het volk aan zijn kant kreeg, maar uiteindelijk in 1115 door een priester werd vermoord. // Вместе со своими вооружёнными сторонниками он представлял силу, с которой должны были считаться герцог и епископ. (Ереси в христианстве)

* Guibert of Nogent [Гвиберт Ножанский] (c 1055-1124; historian). Guibert de Nogent was a Benedictine historian, theologian and author of autobiographical memoirs. Guibert was relatively unknown in his own time, going virtually unmentioned by his contemporaries. He has only recently caught the attention of scholars who have been more interested in his extensive autobiographical memoirs and personality which provide insight into medieval life.

* Peter of Bruys [Pierre De Bruys, Peter de Bruis, Peter of Montboissier; Пётр Брюи, Петер де Брюи] (d c 1131). Peter of Bruys (also known as Pierre De Bruys or Peter de Bruis; fl. 1117 – c.1131) was a popular French religious teacher. He was called a heresiarch (leader of a heretical movement) by the Roman Catholic Church because he opposed infant baptism, the erecting of churches and the veneration of crosses, the doctrine of transubstantiation and prayers for the dead. An angry Roman Catholic mob murdered him in or around 1131. Information on Peter of Bruys is derived from two extant sources, the treatise of Peter the Venerable against his followers and a passage written by Peter Abelard. Life and teachings. Sources suggest that Peter was born at Bruis, in southeastern France. The history of his early life is unknown, but he was a Roman Catholic priest who had been deprived of his office by the Church hierarchy for teaching unorthodox doctrine. He began his preaching in Dauphiné and Provence, probably between 1117 and 1120. The local bishops, who oversaw the dioceses of Embrun, Die, and Gap, suppressed his teachings within their jurisdictions. In spite of the official repression, Peter's teachings gained adherents at Narbonne, Toulouse and in Gascony. Peter admitted the doctrinal authority of the Gospels in their literal interpretation but considered the other New Testament writings to be valueless, as he doubted their apostolic origin. He questioned the Old Testament and rejected the authority of the Church Fathers and that of the Roman Catholic Church itself. Petrobrusians also opposed clerical celibacy, infant baptism, prayers for the dead and organ music. Treatise of Peter the Venerable. In the preface to his treatise that attacked Peter of Bruys, Peter the Venerable summed up the five teachings that he saw as the errors of the Petrobrusians. (...) 1) {infant baptism} The first "error" was their denial "that children, before the age of understanding, can be saved by the baptism... According to the Petrobrusians, not another's, but one's own faith, together with baptism, saves, as the Lord says, 'He who will believe and be baptized will be saved, but he who will not believe will be condemned.'" That idea ran counter to the medieval Church's teaching, particularly in the Latin West, following the theology of Augustine, in which the baptism of infants and children played an essential role in their salvation from the ancestral guilt of original sin. 2) {building churches} The second error charged (with some exaggeration) was that the Petrobrusians said, "Edifices for temples and churches should not be erected... The Petrobrusians are quoted as saying, 'It is unnecessary to build temples, since the church of God does not consist in a multitude of stones joined together, but in the unity of the believers assembled.'" On the other hand, the medieval Church taught that cathedrals and churches were created to glorify God and believed it to be appropriate that those buildings should be as grand and beautiful as wealth and skill could make them. 3) {veneration of the cross} The third error enumerated by Peter the Venerable was that the Petrobrusians "command the sacred crosses to be broken in pieces and burned, because that form or instrument by which Christ was so dreadfully tortured, so cruelly slain, is not worthy of any adoration, or veneration or supplication, but for the avenging of his torments and death it should be treated with unseemly dishonor, cut in pieces with swords, burnt in fire." That was seen as an iconoclastic heresy and as acts of sacrilege by the medieval Church and still is by Catholics today. 4) {Eucharist, Real Presence (transsubstantiation)} The fourth error, according to Peter the Venerable, was that the Petrobrusians denied sacramental grace, rejecting the rite of Communion entirely, let alone the doctrine of the Real Presence or the nascent Scholastic account of transubstantiation: "They deny, not only the truth of the body and blood of the Lord, daily and constantly offered in the church through the sacrament, but declare that it is nothing at all, and ought not to be offered to God. They say, 'Oh, people, do not believe the bishops, priests, or clergy who seduce you; who, as in many things, so in the office of the altar, deceive you when they falsely profess to make the body of Christ and give it to you for the salvation of your souls.'" The term, transubstantiation, used to describe the transformation of the consecrated bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, was first used by Hildebert de Lavardin in about 1079. The theory had long been widely accepted as orthodox doctrine at the time of the attacks by Peter of Bruys. Less than two centuries later, in 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council officially declared transubstantiation the necessary, orthodox Catholic explanation of the Eucharist. 5) {"office of the dead"} The fifth error was that "they deride sacrifices, prayers, alms, and other good works by the faithful living for the faithful dead, and say that these things cannot aid any of the dead even in the least... The good deeds of the living cannot profit the dead, because transferred from this life their merits cannot be increased or diminished, because beyond this life, there is no longer place for merits, only for retribution. Nor can a dead man hope to gain from anybody that which he did not obtain while alive in the world. Therefore those things are pointless that are done by the living for the dead, because they are mortal and have passed by death beyond the way for all flesh, into the state of the future world, and took with them all their merit, to which nothing can be added." Death and legacy. As Peter the Venerable recorded, crosses were singled out for special iconoclasm. Peter of Bruys felt that crosses should not deserve veneration. Crosses became for the Petrobrusians objects of desecration and were destroyed in bonfires. In or around the year 1131, Peter was publicly burning crosses in St Gilles, near Nîmes. The local populace, angered by Peter's destruction of the crosses, cast him into the flames of his own bonfire. // See Henry of Lausanne.

* Peter Abelard [Pierre Abelard; Пьер Абеляр] (c 1079-1142; philosopher). Peter Abelard (French: Pierre Abélard; Latin: Petrus Abaelardus or Abailardus) was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, leading logician, theologian, teacher, musician, composer, and poet. In philosophy he is celebrated for his logical solution to the problem of universals via nominalism and conceptualism and his pioneering of intent in ethics. Often referred to as the “Descartes of the twelfth century”, he is considered a forerunner of Rousseau, Kant, and Spinoza. He is sometimes credited as a chief forerunner of modern empiricism. In history and popular culture, he is best known for his passionate and tragic love affair and intense philosophical exchange with his brilliant student and eventual wife, Héloïse d'Argenteuil. Apologist of women and of their education, Abelard founded in 1131 the first feminine monastery, meeting point of learned women, for whom he composed music. After having sent Héloïse to a convent in Brittany to protect her from her abusive uncle who did not want her to pursue this forbidden love, he was castrated by men sent by this uncle. Still considering herself as his spouse even though both retired to monasteries after this event, Heloise publicly defended him when his doctrine was condemned by Pope Innocent II and Abelard was therefore considered, at that time, as a heretic. Among these opinions, Abelard professed the innocence of a woman who commits a sin out of love. In Catholic theology, he is best known for his development of the concept of limbo, and his introduction of the moral influence theory of atonement. He is considered (alongside Augustine) to be the most significant forerunner of the modern self-reflective autobiographer. He paved the way and set the tone for later epistolary novels and celebrity tell-alls with his publicly distributed letter, The History of My Calamities and public correspondence. In law, Abelard stressed that, because the subjective intention determines the moral value of human action, the legal consequence of an action is related to the person that commits it and not merely to the action. With this doctrine, Abelard created in the Middle Ages the idea of the individual subject central to modern law. This eventually gave to School of Notre-Dame de Paris (later the University of Paris) a recognition for its expertise in the area of Law (and later led to the creation of a faculty of law in Paris). // Beilby and Eddy note that Abelard was "challenged in his views by Bernard of Clairvaux, condemned by the Council of Sens (1140), and eventually excommunicated. (Moral influence theory of atonement) // Sic et Non (XII). Sic et Non, an early scholastic text whose title translates from Medieval Latin as "Yes and No", was written by Peter Abelard. In the work, Abelard juxtaposes apparently contradictory quotations from the Church Fathers on many of the traditional topics of Christian theology. In the Prologue, Abelard outlines rules for reconciling these contradictions, the most important of which is noting the multiple significations of a single word. However, Abelard does not himself apply these rules in the body of the Sic et Non, which has led scholars to conclude that the work was meant as an exercise book for students in applying dialectic (logic) to theology. In Sic et Non, Abelard presents 158 questions that present a theological assertion and allows its negation. The first five questions are: Must human faith be completed by reason, or not? Does faith deal only with unseen things, or not? Is there any knowledge of things unseen, or not? {negative theology, Kant} May one believe only in God alone, or not? Is God a single unitary being, or not? The prologue frames the text as a professor's guide, "Aristotle, the most clear-sighted of all the philosophers, was desirous above all things else to arouse this questioning spirit ...".

* Henry of Lausanne / Le Mans [Henry the Petrobrusian, Henricians, Henricans; Генри Лозанский, Генрих Лозаннский] (d 1148). Henry of Lausanne (variously known as of Bruys, of Cluny, of Toulouse, of Le Mans and as the Deacon, sometimes referred to as Henry the Monk or Henry the Petrobrusian) was a French heresiarch of the first half of the 12th century. His preaching began around 1116 and he died imprisoned around 1148. His followers are known as Henricians. Henry was an itinerant preacher. He was a tall, charismatic ascetic, with a beard and long hair. His voice was sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He went bare-footed, preceded by a man carrying a staff surmounted with an iron cross; he slept on the bare ground, and lived by alms. When Henry arrived at the episcopal town of Le Mans in 1101, probably from Lausanne, Bishop Hildebert was absent and Henry was granted permission to preach from March to July, a practice reserved for the regular clergy, and soon attained considerable influence over the people. Knowledge of his ministry is mostly hearsay from a pamphlet by Abbot Peter of Cluny. He is said to have preached penitence, rejecting both the intercession of saints and second marriages. Women, encouraged by his words, gave up their jewels and luxurious apparel, and young men married prostitutes in the hope of reforming them. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans soon began to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all ecclesiastical authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a public disputation with Henry, in which, according to the Maurist Antoine Beaugendre's Acta episcoporum Cenomannensium, Henry was shown to be less guilty of heresy than of ignorance. He, however, was forced to leave Le Mans due to his anti-clericalism, and probably went to Poitiers and afterwards to Bordeaux. Later we find him in the archdiocese of Arles, where the archbishop arrested him and had his case referred to the tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry was brought by the archbishop of Arles before Pope Innocent II at the council of Pisa, where he was made to abjure his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It appears that St Bernard offered him an asylum at Clairvaux. Instead, he returned to the Midi where he came under the influence of Peter of Bruys. He adopted the Petrobrusians' teaching about 1135 and spread it in a modified form after its author's death. Around 1139, Peter of Cluny, wrote a treatise called Epistola seu tractatus adversus Petrobrusianos (Migne, Patr. Lat. clxxxix) against the disciples of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry of Bruys, and whom, at the moment of writing, he accuses of preaching, in all the dioceses in the south of France, errors which he had inherited from Peter of Bruys. According to Peter of Cluny, Henry's teaching is summed up as follows: rejection of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the church; recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist, of the sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints {the spiritual union of the members of the Christian Church, living and the dead, but excluding the damned; they are all part of a single "mystical body", with Christ as the head, in which each member contributes to the good of all and shares in the welfare of all}, and of prayers for the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of worship or liturgy. The success of this teaching spread very rapidly in the south of France. Speaking of this region, St Bernard (Ep. 241) says: "The churches are without flocks, the flocks without priests, the priests without honour; in a word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ." On several occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator on the scene of his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the legate Alberic, cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out, passing through the diocese of Angoulême and Limoges, sojourning for some time at Bordeaux, and finally reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac, Périgueux, Sarlat, Cahors and Toulouse. At Bernard's approach Henry departed Toulouse, leaving there many adherents, both of noble and humble birth, and especially among the weavers. Death and legacy. St Bernard's eloquence and reported miracles made many converts, and Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to Roman orthodoxy. After inviting Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend, St Bernard returned to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards Henry of Lausanne was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a letter written at the end of 1146, St Bernard calls upon the people of Toulouse to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. In 1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc, for Matthew Paris relates (Chron. maj., at date 1151) that a young girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to designate definitely as Henricians one of the two sects discovered at Cologne and described by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in his letter to St Bernard (Migne, Patr. Lat., clxxxii. 676-680), or the heretics of Périgord mentioned by a certain monk Heribert (Martin Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, XII.550-551). According to the British Puritan Rev. Dr. William Wall, "the Petrobrusians -- otherwise called the 'Henricians' -- did own water-baptism, and yet deny infant-baptism.... Peter Bruis and Henry [of Lausanne were] the two first antipaedobaptist preachers in the world." The Jehovah's Witnesses suggest that Henry of Lausanne may have been one of a long line of "genuine anointed Christians" who defended Bible truth down through the ages. // Henricians [Henry of Lausanne] (XII). Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk, adopted the Petrobrusians' teachings about 1135 and spread them in a modified form after Peter's death. His teachings continued to be frequently condemned by the Roman Catholic Church, meriting mention at the Second Lateran Council in 1139. Henry of Lausanne's followers became known as Henricians. Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian sects began to die out in 1145, the year St Bernard of Clairvaux began preaching for a return to Roman orthodoxy in southern France. In a letter to the people of Toulouse, written at the end of 1146, Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. As late as 1151, however, some Henricians still remained active in Languedoc. In that year, the Benedictine monk and English chronicler Matthew Paris related that a young girl who claimed to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin Mary was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne. The sects both disappear from the historical record after that reference. There is no evidence that Peter Waldo or any other later religious figures were directly influenced by Peter of Bruys. His low view of the Old Testament and the New Testament epistles was not shared by later Protestant figures such as Martin Luther or John Smyth. However, Peter is considered a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation by some evangelical Protestants and Anabaptists. (Peter of Bruys) // One need not believe the accusations of sexual licence and perversion which the clerical chroniclers brought against Henry, for these were clichés which were regularly brought against religious dissidents. On the contrary, Henry seems to have been a preacher of sexual austerity, who persuaded women to throw their rich clothes and ornaments {where does this interpretation come from ??} on to bonfires specially lit for the purpose, and who reformed prostitutes by marrying them off to his own followers. (Cohn)

* Eudo de Stella [Éon de l'Étoile, Eon, Eonists; Эон де л'Этуаль] (d 1150; robber-"messiah"). Éon de l'Étoile, from the Latin Eudo de Stella, was a Breton religious leader and "messiah." He opposed the Roman Catholic Church to the point of pillaging abbeys and monasteries and accumulating a large treasure during a period of eight years (1140–48). He was considered little more than an "illiterate idiot" by the Church authorities. Эон де л'Этуаль. Эон де л'Этуаль (ум 1150), из латыни Евдо де Стелла, был бретонским религиозным лидером и «мессией . " Он выступил против Римско-католической церкви до грабежа аббатств и монастырей и накопления большого сокровища в течение восьми лет (1140–1148 гг.). Церковные власти считали его не более чем «неграмотным идиотом». 360wiki.ru - Эон де л'Этуаль - Éon de l'Étoile // Eon was found mad, but a number of his followers were burned. (History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance)

* Lambert le Bègue [priest, reformer; Ламбер ле Бег] (XII). Lambert le Bègue, also called Lambert li Bègues, (English: Lambert the Stutterer) was a priest and reformer, who lived in Liège, Belgium, in the middle of the 12th century. (...) At the diocesan synod of 1166 he spoke out against the abuses of the clergy, protesting against simony, the ordination of sons of priests, and certain customs in the administration of the Sacrament of Baptism and the celebration of Mass. He ascribed greater importance to the devout mind and practical love of one's neighbor than to means of grace and sacraments. He founded in Liège the hospital of St. Christopher. In time he gathered about him a popular following, for whom he translated into the vernacular (French) the Life of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Life of St Agnes, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles of St. Paul, with commentaries; these translations unfortunately have not been preserved. The foundation of such groups reflected the general flowering of the religious life among the laity in the towns of northern Europe during the late Middle Ages. The communities of beguines also served as refuges for women left widowed or unmarried by the participation of large numbers of men in the Crusades. The members frequently lived in individual apartments in a large, separately enclosed section of town called the beguinage. They renounced their goods and lived a semi-conventual life, but took no vows and followed none of the approved monastic rules. They dressed in distinctive costumes {"Beguines should wear a falie, a white veil, which differed in form from the headgear of nuns."} and spent their days in prayer, education, care of the sick, and work such as weaving. But he also had adversaries, especially among the clergy, and it was to refute them that he wrote a defense of his theories, entitled "Antigraphum Petri". His writings reveal him a man very learned for his time. They abound with quotations, not only from the Bible, but also from the Fathers of the Church, such as St. Gregory, St. Augustine and St. Bernard, and even from profane authors like Ovid, Virgil and Cicero. Accused of heresy, he was condemned and imprisoned notwithstanding his appeal to the Holy See. He escaped and went over to the antipope Callistus III, who had been recognized by Raoul of Zahringen, Prince-Bishop (i.e. bishop and secular ruler) of Liège. He wrote to the Pope several letters in justification of his doctrines and conduct, but the result of these endeavors is not known. In all probability he returned to Liège where he died in 1177. Walter Simons points out that the belief that he founded the beguines did not arise until the mid-thirteenth century, and discounts it as beguines did not begin to appear in Liège until sometime after his death.

* Commune of Rome [Римская Коммуна] (1144-1145). The Commune of Rome (Italian: Comune di Roma) was established in 1144 after a rebellion led by Giordano Pierleoni. Pierleoni led a people's revolt due to the increasing powers of the Pope and the entrenched powers of the nobility. The goal of the rebellion was to organize the government of Rome in a similar fashion to that of the previous Roman Republic. Pierleoni was named the "first Patrician of the Roman Commune", but was deposed in 1145.

* Arnold of Brescia [Arnaldus; Арнольд Брешианский] (c 1090-1155). Arnold of Brescia, also known as Arnaldus (Italian: Arnaldo da Brescia), was an Italian canon regular from Lombardy. He called on the Church to renounce property ownership and participated in the failed Commune of Rome. Exiled at least three times and eventually arrested, Arnold was hanged by the papacy, then was burned posthumously and (his ashes) thrown into the River Tiber. Though he failed as a religious reformer and a political leader, his teachings on apostolic poverty gained currency after his death among "Arnoldists" and more widely among Waldensians and the Spiritual Franciscans, though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. Protestants rank him among the precursors of the Reformation. Born in Brescia, Arnold became an Augustinian canon and then prior of a monastery in Brescia. He criticized the Catholic Church's temporal powers that involved it in a land struggle in Brescia against the Count-Bishop of Brescia. He called on the Church to renounce its claim and return ownership to the city government so as not to be tainted by possession—renunciation of worldliness being one of his primary teachings. He was condemned at the Second Lateran Council in 1139 and banished from Italy. According to the chronicler Otto of Freising, Arnold had studied in Paris under the tutelage of the reformer and philosopher Pierre Abélard. He approved of Abélard's proposals for monastic reform. The issue came before the Synod of Sens in 1141 and both Arnold and Abélard's positions were overruled by Bernard of Clairvaux. Arnold stood alone against the church's decision after Abélard's capitulation; he returned to Paris, where he continued to teach and preach against Bernard. As a consequence he was then commanded to silence and exiled by Pope Innocent II. He took refuge first in Zürich and then probably in Bavaria. His writings were also ordered burned as a further measure, though that judgement is the only evidence that he had actually written anything. Arnold continued to preach his radical ideas concerning apostolic poverty. Arnold, who is known only from the vituperative condemnation of his foes, was declared to be a demagogue; his motives were impugned. Having returned to Italy after 1143, in 1145 Arnold made his peace with Pope Eugene III, who ordered him to submit himself to the mercy of the Church in Rome. When he arrived, he found that Giordano Pierleoni's followers had asserted the ancient rights of the commune of Rome, taken control of the city from papal forces, and founded a republic, the Commune of Rome. Arnold sided with the people immediately and, after Pierleoni's deposition, soon became the intellectual leader of the Commune, calling for freedoms and democratic rights. Arnold taught that clergy who owned property had no power to perform the Sacraments {<> Novatianism/Donatism}. He succeeded in driving Pope Eugene into exile in 1146, for which he was excommunicated on 15 July 1148. When Pope Eugene returned to the city in 1148, Arnold continued to lead the blossoming republic despite his excommunication. In summing up these events, Caesar Baronius called Arnold "the father of political heresies", while Edward Gibbon later expressed his view that "the trumpet of Roman liberty was first sounded by Arnold." After Pope Eugene's death, Pope Adrian IV swiftly took steps to regain control of Rome. He allied with Frederick Barbarossa, who took Rome by force in 1155 after a Holy Week interdict and forced Arnold again into exile. Arnold was seized by Imperial forces and tried by the Roman Curia as a rebel. Importantly, he was never accused of heresy. Faced with the stake, he refused to recant any of his positions. Convicted of rebellion, Arnold was hanged in June and his body burnt. Because he remained a hero to large sections of the Roman people and the minor clergy, his ashes were cast into the Tiber, to prevent his burial place becoming venerated as the shrine of a martyr. In 1882, after the collapse of Papal temporal powers, the city of Brescia erected a monument to its native son. // Arnold of Brescia. Italian religious reformer. Arnold of Brescia,, Italian Arnaldo da Brescia, (born c. 1100, Brescia, Republic of Venice—died c. June 1155, Civita Castellana or Monterotondo, Papal States), radical religious reformer noted for his outspoken criticism of clerical wealth and corruption and for his strenuous opposition to the temporal power of the popes. He was prior of the monastery at Brescia, where in 1137 he participated in a popular revolt against the government of Bishop Manfred {He criticized the Catholic Church's temporal powers that involved it in a land struggle in Brescia against the Count-Bishop of Brescia.}. His proposals for reforming the clergy and for ending the church’s temporal powers caused him to be condemned as a schismatic by Pope Innocent II in 1139. Banished from Italy, Arnold went to France, where he became a supporter of the renowned theologian and philosopher Peter Abelard. Both were condemned as heretics at the Council of Sens, France, in 1141, through the influence of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Though Abelard submitted, Arnold defiantly continued teaching in Paris until, through the insistence of Bernard, he was exiled by King Louis VII the Young of France in 1141. Arnold fled first to Zürich, then to Passau, Ger., where he was protected by Cardinal Guido, through whose mediation he was reconciled with Pope Eugenius III at Viterbo, Papal States, in September 1145. Two years earlier the renovatio senatus (“renewal of the Senate”), seeking independence from ecclesiastical control, had expelled Innocent and the cardinals, revived the ancient senate, and proclaimed Rome a republic. Eugenius sent Arnold to Rome on a penitential pilgrimage. He soon allied himself with the insurgents and resumed his preaching against the Pope and cardinals. He was excommunicated in July 1148. Arnold’s agitation for ecclesiastical reform vitalized the revolt against the Pope as temporal ruler, and he soon controlled the Romans. He also worked to consolidate the citizens’ newly won independence. Pope Adrian IV placed Rome under interdict in 1155 and asked the citizens to surrender Arnold. The Senate submitted, the republic collapsed, and the papal government was restored. Arnold, who had fled, was captured by the forces of the Holy Roman emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, then visiting Rome for his imperial coronation. Arnold was tried by an ecclesiastical tribunal, condemned for heresy, and transferred to the Emperor for execution. He was hanged, his body burned, and his ashes cast into the Tiber River. Arnold’s character was austere and his mode of life ascetic. His followers, known as Arnoldists, postulated an incompatibility between spiritual power and material possessions and rejected any temporal powers of the church. They were condemned in 1184 at the Synod of Verona, Republic of Venice. Arnold’s personality has been distorted through modern poets and dramatists and Italian politicians. He was foremost a religious reformer, constrained by circumstances to become a political revolutionary. Britannica - Arnold of Brescia // [[Q: How 'political' was he exactly? Aiming for 'a social as well as an ecclesiastical revolution', his struggle appears to have been at least as much politically as religiously motivated. His struggle is one against the Church's territorial claims and the political ('worldly') power these ensue, and his demand that the Church limit itself to a spiritual role fits perfectly in what is effectively a rebellion against the idea of a Papal State, and a plight for local self-government and decentralization of powers. These themes feature prominently both in his activities as a prior in Brescia, as well as in his involvement with the Commune of Rome. If Arnold did harbor any deeply-felt apostolic ideals, these existed only in the background of what was a very worldly political struggle. To which extent this society was to be based on ideals of social justice and polular self-rule isn't entirely clear. Seeking to re-establish a glorified version of the ancient Roman Republic, the project was still the brainchild of a small local elite, hoping to replace the old one. While fulminating against the political powers of the Church, there is little evidence of Arnold being overly concerned with the moral strictness of its clerics, other than that without it they held no authority over the believers. His demand for the Church and its clergy to part with their worldly possessions and to embrace poverty as 'the essential condition of a true priesthood', his rejection of the validity of the office of unworthy priests, all fit neatly in his striving to limit before all the political powers of the Church. While these were almost commonplaces in medieval heretic movements, his motivations appears to have differed fundamentally from some of the others. There seems to be little evidence of Arnold striving to transform society into a community of saints, led by holy men who are sufficiently 'pure' to act as effective representatives of God on earth. Arnold, instead, appears to have been aiming at a society which was at least politically secular and free from ecclesiatical interference. In that sense, Arnolds attitude toward society seems very modern, an early foreshadowing almost of the separation between Church and State, as realized only centuries after his death. and since this political power was rooted above all in its massive land ownership, his logical conclusion was that in order to have any social or spiritual relevance, the Church had to part with its possessions first. His criticism of the Church had him expelled from Italy in 1139, but he managed to return within four years, making peace with the new pope, and promptly joining the self-proclaimed Commune of Rome. This short-lived social experiment, of which he became the main ideologist, consisted in a popular uprising against the oppressive forces of both nobility and Church, curiously combined with efforts to reinstate the political structure of the ancient Roman Republic.]] [[Arnold stood at the head of the Commune of Rome, a rebellion against papal authority in the City of Rome and an attempt to reorganize the government of Rome along the lines of the ancient Roman Republic. The commune declared allegiance to the secular Holy Roman Emperor against the Pope.]] Britannica - Arnold of Brescia

* Arnoldists [Publicans, Arnold of Brescia; Арнольдисты, публиканы] (XII). {Publicans was another name for the 12th century religious sect the Arnoldists} Arnoldists were a pre-Protestant Christian movement in the 12th century, named after Arnold of Brescia, an advocate of ecclesiastical reform who criticized the great wealth and possessions of the Roman Catholic Church, while preaching against infant baptism and the Eucharist. His disciples were also called "Publicans" or "Poplecans", a name probably deriving from Paulicians. The Arnoldists were condemned as heretics by Pope Lucius III in the Ad abolendam during the Synod of Verona in 1184. Their tenets would later be addressed by Bonacursus of Milan, c. 1190, in his Manifestatio haeresis Catharorum, which refuted Arnoldist apostolic poverty and the incapacity of sinful priests to administer the sacraments. // As for his influence, no other source names the “heretical sect of the Lombards” mentioned by John of Salisbury, but before the end of the century a sect called “Arnoldists” existed in northern Italy. They denied the validity of sacraments administered by unworthy priests, refused to admit {accept as valid} the coercive or judicial power of the Church, insisted on the right of lay preaching, and advocated poverty as the essential condition of a true priesthood. That they were directly the product of Arnold’s teaching is probable but not assured. (Heresies of the high middle ages : selected sources, translated and annotated / by Walter L. Wakefield and Austin P. Evans.)

* Publicani [Publicans, Deonarii, Telonarii, Cathars (??)] (XII). Publicani (in other sources found as popelicani, popelicant, etc.): This was one of the earliest of specific sect names used in Western Europe. Crusaders had probably brought it back from the East, where they had heard the Greek pavlikianoi applied to contingents in the Moslem army, to ethnic groups in the Balkans, and to heretics; references to the word in narratives of the crusades are collected in Garsoian, The Paulician Heresy. It seems to have carried implications from the biblical “publicans”. As a name for heretics it first appears in a letter of Louis VII of France in 1162, after which it is not uncommon in sources written in northern Europe. // Deonarii [Publicans]. Deonarii seu Poplicani: This is the only known occurrence of the first of these names. De la Barrels suggestion that it is the scribe’s error for telonarii [tax collectors], is accepted in Migne, PL, CXCIV, 1681 by Runciman, and by Borst. This would imply that the heretics were equated in popular opinion with the publicans of the Bible. "At this time, certain heretics who are called Deonarii or Publicans were arrested at Vezelay." (Heresies of the high middle ages : selected sources, translated and annotated / by Walter L. Wakefield and Austin P. Evans.) // DEONARII, Hæreticorum secta ex Manichæis seu Paulicianis. Historia Vezeliacensis lib. 4. pag. 644 : Eo tempore deprehensi sunt apud Vizeliacum quidam hæretici, qui dicuntur Deonarii, seu Poplicani. Et mox : Convicti sunt quod solam divinitatis essentiam ore confitentes, omnia penitus Ecclesiæ Catholicæ Sacramenta evacuarent. Ii forte quos Deistas dicimus, qui omni religione posthabita, solum Deum colunt. Vide Populicani. Du Cange et al., Glossarium mediæ et infimæ latinitatis. Niort : L. Favre, 1883-1887. - DEONARII // The Cathari, from their Bulgarian origin, were also known as Bulgari, Bugari, Bulgri, Bugres (Matt. Paris, ann. 1238) — a word which has been retained with an infamous signification in the English, French, and Italian vernaculars {Bugger}. We have seen above that from the number of weavers among them they were also known in France as Texerant, or Textores (cf Doat, XXIII. 209-10). The term Speronista was derived from Robert de Sperone, bishop of the French Cathari in Italy (Schmidt, II. 282). The Crusaders who met the Paulicians in the East brought home the word and called them Publicani, or Popelicans. More local designations were Piphili or Pifres (Ecbert. Schonaug. Serm. i. c. 1), Telonarii or Deonarii (D'Achery, II. 560), and Boni Homines, or Bonshommes. The term Albigenses, from the district of Albi, where they were numerous, was first employed by Geofiroy of Vigeois, in 1181 (Gaufridi Vosens. Chron. ann. 1181), and became generally used during the crusades against Raymond of Toulouse. The various sects into which the Cathari were divided were further known by special names, as Albanenses, Concorrezenses, Bajolenses, etc. (Rainerii Saccon. Summa. Cf Muratori Dissert. LX.). In the official language of the Inquisition of the thirteenth century, "heretic" always means Catharan {??}, while the Vaudois {Waldenses: "Waldensians, members of a Christian sect also known as Vaudois"} are specifically designated as such {??}. The accused was interrogated " Super facto hoeresis vel Valdesiae." Henry Charles Lea - A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages-Volume I 1887/1906 (This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work was reproduced from the original artifact, and remains as true to the original work as possible.) // Arnoldists [Publicans, Arnold of Brescia; Арнольдисты, публиканы] (XII); Publicans was another name for the 12th century religious sect the Arnoldists; his disciples were also called "Publicans" or "Poplecans", a name probably deriving from Paulicians. (Arnoldists) // Publicani (in other sources found as popelicani, popelicant, etc.): This was one of the earliest of specific sect names used in Western Europe. Crusaders had probably brought it back from the East, where they had heard the Greek pavlikianoi applied to contingents in the Moslem army, to ethnic groups in the Balkans, and to heretics; references to the word in narratives of the crusades are collected in Garsoian, The Paulician Heresy {??}. It seems to have carried implications from the biblical “publicans”. As a name for heretics it first appears in a letter of Louis VII of France in 1162, after which it is not uncommon in sources written in northern Europe. // Arnoldists [Publicans, Arnold of Brescia; Арнольдисты, публиканы] (XII); Publicans was another name for the 12th century religious sect the Arnoldists; his disciples were also called "Publicans" or "Poplecans", a name probably deriving from Paulicians {??}. // Cathar heretics enjoyed influence in various strata of society, including the very highest. (So, about Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, they wrote that Cathars dressed in ordinary clothes were always present in his retinue, so that in the event of a sudden proximity to death, he could receive their blessing). However, the main preaching of the Cathars was, apparently, addressed to the urban lower classes. This is evidenced, in particular, by the names of various sects related to the Cathars: Populicani ("populists") (some researchers see here, however, a spoiled name pavlikian), Piphler (also from "plebs"), Texerantes (weavers), Poor people, Patarens (from rag pickers, symbol of beggars). In their sermon, they said that a truly Christian life is possible only with a community of property. In 1023, the Cathars were put on trial at Monteforte on charges of promoting celibacy and community of property, as well as attacking church customs. Apparently, the appeal for community of property was quite common among the Cathars, as it is mentioned in some of the Catholic writings directed against them. Thus, in one of them the Cathars are accused of declaring this principle demagogically, but they themselves do not adhere to it: "You do not have everything in common, some have more, others less." The celibacy of the perfect and the general condemnation of marriage is found in all Cathars. But in a number of cases only marriage was considered sinful among heretics, but not fornication outside of marriage. (It must be remembered that "do not commit adultery" was recognized as the commandment of an evil god). Thus, these prohibitions had as their purpose not so much the bridling of the flesh as the destruction of the family. In the writings of contemporaries, the accusation of the Cathars in the community of wives, "free" or "holy" love is always encountered. QATARI HERESY. THE CATHAR RELIGION, THE DEATH OF THE CATHARS AND THE CATHAR CASTLES

* Persecution society [Moore; Централизованный бюрократический аппарат преследования] (XII). How did our 12th-century forebears deal with all this insecurity and dramatic change? They invented a persecution society, one that systematically identified whole categories of people and then set about exterminating, subjugating or segregating them. Just as the origins of modern Europe and its global expansion can be tracked back to the momentous political and economic changes of the 12th century, so can its corollary, a state built to persecute minorities, which has intermittently characterised Europe's history ever since. This is the argument brilliantly explored in one of the most influential and controversial books of medieval history of the last 20 years, RI Moore's The Formation of a Persecuting Society. The relevance of its argument today is uncanny. Moore demonstrates that the demonisation of the Jews and the emergence of systematic antisemitism was part of a broader process in which the threat from very disparate groups of people was inflated - heretics, gays, lepers all become subjects of new legislation - and new methods of intervention in the lives of individuals, including inquisition and torture, were invented. Some of the results of the "persecuting society" are well known. The position of Jews deteriorated all over Europe, their lives circumscribed by punitive regulations and mass murders. There was the brutal persecution of Cathar heretics in south-west France and its invention of the inquisition. Lepers were deprived of civil rights, rounded up and confined. European attitudes towards Islam fit into the thesis. They deteriorated sharply in the 12th century and an initial curiosity gave way to abusive prejudice. There was a process of deliberate forgetting of the great achievements of Islamic scholarship which had been known a century earlier - Europe simply lost interest in learning Arabic, indeed learning anything more from its much more scholarly Muslim neighbours {Europe was at was with its islamic neighbors!}. This prejudice, this impulse to stigmatise and persecute, was not a reaction to a new threat. There had always been plenty of Jews, heretics and homosexuals and, of course, they had been the subject of violence before, but not in the 12th-century version of a deliberate and socially sanctioned violence by the state and other institutions. The persecution was not a response to Jews becoming rich from usury (as the history used to run) but a response of a society in tumultuous change as powerful interests sought to take advantage. Crucially, the state and its new functionaries were intent on expanding their power, and used persecution of entirely new "crimes" as a way to develop the machinery and legitimacy with which to exercise this new power. It's a legacy that Moore argues has plagued European history, erupting each time with greater force and more devastating consequences. One can see the pattern in 16th-century witchcraft trials and religious persecution, right up to the Holocaust or the informants of the German Democratic Republic. All follow a pattern first laid down between the 11th and 13th centuries, even if many of the circumstantial detail differs. {Q: how NOT universally human is this?} Madeleine Bunting - Our tendency to persecute others is as alive today as in medieval times // The Tenth to the Thirteenth centuries in Europe saw the appearance of popular heresy and the establishment of the inquisition; expropriation and mass murder of Jews; the foundation of leper hospitals in large numbers and the propagation of elaborate measures to segregate lepers from the healthy. These have traditionally been seen as distinct and separate developments, and explained in terms of the problems which their victims presented to medieval society. In this stimulating book Robert Moore argues that the coincidences in the treatment of these and other minority groups cannot be explained independently, and that all are part of a pattern of persecution which now appeared for the first time to make Europe become, as it has remained, a persecuting society. (GB)