MILLENNIALISM, REVELATION

* Apocalyptic literature [Apocalypse as a prophetical genre; Апокалиптическая литература, жанр] (-II-II). Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post-Exilic Jewish culture and was popular among millennialist early Christians. Apocalypse (apokálypsis) is a Greek word meaning "revelation", "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known and which could not be known apart from the unveiling". As a genre, apocalyptic literature details the authors' visions of the end times/end of the age as revealed by an angel or other heavenly messenger. The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the Babylonian exile down to the close of the Middle Ages. Апокалиптическая литература. Апокалиптическая литература — жанр пророческих писаний, который развивался в еврейской литературе, главным образом периода Второго Храма, и был популярен среди милленаристских ранних христиан. «Апокалипсис» (греч. раскрытие, откровение) означает «откровение» о том, что было ранее неизвестным и не могло быть известным до этого откровения. Как жанр апокалиптическая литература открывает подробности видений о конце времен, о том, что может случиться в будущем, как показано было в видении или устном откровении небесного посланника или ангела. Апокалиптическая литература иудаизма и христианства охватывает значительный период, от Вавилонского плена вплоть до конца средних веков. // Apocalyptic literature, literary genre that foretells supernaturally inspired cataclysmic events that will transpire at the end of the world. A product of the Judeo-Christian tradition, apocalyptic literature is characteristically pseudonymous; it takes narrative form, employs esoteric language, expresses a pessimistic view of the present {'world'}, and treats the final events as imminent. The earliest apocalypses are Jewish works that date from about 200 BCE to about 165 BCE. Whereas earlier Jewish writers, the Prophets, had foretold the coming of disasters, often in esoteric language, they neither placed these disasters in a narrative framework nor conceived of them in eschatological terms. During the time of the Hellenistic domination of Palestine and the revolt of the Maccabees, however, a pessimistic view of the present became coupled with an expectation of an apocalyptic scenario, which is characterized by an imminent crisis, a universal judgment, and a supernatural resolution. The most famous and influential of the early Jewish apocalypses is the last part of the biblical Book of Daniel (chapters 7–12), written about 167 BCE and attributed to a revered wise man who supposedly lived some four centuries earlier at the time of the Babylonian captivity. “Daniel” recounts a series of visions, the first of which (chapter 7) is the most succinct. He sees a succession of four terrible beasts, evidently representing a succession of earthly persecutors culminating in the contemporary Hellenistic tyrant Antiochus IV Epiphanes (the “eleventh horn” of the fourth beast). Daniel then sees the destruction of the last beast by the “Ancient of Days” and the coming of “one like the Son of Man,” to whom is given “everlasting dominion that shall not pass away” and whose kingdom will be inhabited by “the people of the saints,” who will forever serve and obey him. Brittanica - Robert E. Lerner - Apocalyptic literature

* Eschatology [End-times theology; Эсхатология]. Eschatology is a part of theology concerned with the final events of history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity. This concept is commonly referred to as "the end of the world" or "end times". The word arises from the Greek éschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of", and first appeared in English around 1844. The Oxford English Dictionary defines eschatology as "the part of theology concerned with death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul and of humankind". In the context of mysticism, the term refers metaphorically to the end of ordinary reality and to reunion with the divine. Many[quantify] religions treat eschatology as a future event prophesied in sacred texts or in folklore. Eschatologies vary as to their degree of optimism or pessimism about the future. In some eschatologies, conditions are better for some and worse for others, e.g. "heaven and hell". They also vary as to time frames. Groups claiming the end of times to be imminent are also referred to as doomsday cults. Эсхатология. Эсхатоло́гия — система религиозных взглядов и представлений о конце истории, искуплении и загробной жизни, о судьбе Вселенной и её переходе в качественно новое состояние. Также раздел богословия, изучающий эту систему взглядов и представлений в рамках той или иной религиозной доктрины. В религии различаются индивидуальная эсхатология (учение о судьбе личности) и всемирная эсхатология (учение о цели космоса и истории, а также их конце). Эсхатологические представления свойственны многим религиозно-мифологическим системам в истории человечества.

* Два Зверя Апокалипсиса [The Beast of Revelation, two beasts, beast out of the earth/sea]. Откровение Иоанна Богослова, Глава 13 — тринадцатая глава Книги Апокалипсиса (13:1–18), в которой появляются два Зверя Апокалипсиса — Зверь из моря и Зверь из земли. Из моря выходит Зверь с 10 рогами и 7 головами, и 10 диадимами, похожий на барса (леопарда), с ногами, как у медведя и пастью льва. Красный Дракон (из прошлой главы) дает ему свою силу, престол и великую власть. Одна из его голов смертельно ранена, но ее исцеляют. После этого люди земли совершают поклонение Дракону, а затем — поклонение Зверю из моря. Этот зверь получает власть на 42 месяца. Он получает право хулить Бога, сразиться с народом Божьим и победить его. Ему поклоняются все жители земли, чьи имена не записаны в книгу Агнца. Затем из земли выходит второй Зверь — с рогами, как у Агнца, но говорящий как дракон. Его власть — от первого Зверя, он действует от его имени и заставляет всех жителей земли поклониться первому Зверю же. Зверь из земли совершает знамения и чудеса, а также приказывает людям сделать изображение Зверя из моря. Это изображение может убивать всех, кто ему не поклоняется. The Beast (Revelation). Зверь из земли заставляет всех поставить клеймо на правую руку или лоб — число зверя. The Beast (Greek: Thērion) may refer to one of two beasts described in the Book of Revelation. The first beast comes "out of the sea" and is given authority and power by the dragon. This first beast is initially mentioned in Revelation 11:7 as coming out of the abyss. His appearance is described in detail in Revelation 13:1-10, and some of the mystery behind his appearance is revealed in Revelation 17:7-18. The second beast comes "out of the earth" and directs all peoples of the earth to worship the first beast. The second beast is associated with Revelation 13:11-18 the false prophet. The two beasts are aligned with the dragon in opposition to God. They persecute the "saints" and those who do "not worship the image of the beast [of the sea]" and influence the kings of the earth to gather for the battle of Armageddon. The two beasts are defeated by Christ and are thrown into the lake of fire mentioned in Revelation 19:18-20. "The sea": here represents 'the sphere of primeval chaos, the source of evil, an alternative image to the abyss (cf. Revelation 11:7) {"And when they shall have finished their testimony, the beast that ascendeth out of the bottomless pit shall make war against them, and shall overcome them, and kill them."}. // Revelation 12. This chapter contains the accounts about the woman, the dragon, and the child, followed by the war between Michael and the dragon, then the appearance of the monster from the sea.

* Destructive eschatology ['Деструктивная эсхатология'] About AD 200, apocalyptic expectations seem to have reached unusual levels. Montanism spread outside Asia Minor and found converts throughout the Roman Empire, including Tertullian {"the Antichrist comes out of the church"}, a North African lawyer and theologian. Apocalyptic prophets {who ??}, some including bishops, roused their flocks with visions of the imminent End and led them into the desert to meet Christ returning on the clouds. In response to these disastrous errors, a nonapocalyptic version of millennialism, the “sabbatical millennium,” emerged. (...) The association of apocalyptic millenarianism with the Montanist heresy and other troubling antiauthoritarian beliefs {new prophetic revelations, Gnosticism (??)} and practices discredited it, especially among the clerical supporters of the “monarchical episcopacy” of the 3rd century, who laid the groundwork for the revolutionary notion in Christianity of a sacred empire {state religion, sacred state}. Britannica - Richard Landes - Eschatology // Brill - DOUGLAS POWELL - TERTULLIANISTS AND CATAPHRYGIANS // Arzén Szilveszter Füsti-Molnár - Ecclesia sine macula et ruga. Donatist Factors among the Ecclesiological Challenges for the Reformed Church of Hungary especially after 1989/90

* Christian eschatology [Христианская эсхатология]. Christian eschatology, a major branch of study within Christian theology, deals with "last things". Such eschatology - the word derives from two Greek roots meaning "last" and "study" - involves the study of "end things", whether of the end of an individual life, of the end of the age, of the end of the world or of the nature of the Kingdom of God. Broadly speaking, Christian eschatology focuses on the ultimate destiny of individual souls and of the entire created order, based primarily upon biblical texts within the Old and New Testaments.  Christian eschatology looks to study and discuss matters such as death and the afterlife, Heaven and Hell, the second coming of Jesus, the resurrection of the dead, the rapture, the tribulation, millennialism, the end of the world, the Last Judgment, and the New Heaven and New Earth in the world to come. Eschatological passages appear in many places in the Bible, in both in the Old and the New Testaments. Many extra-biblical examples of eschatological prophecies also exist, as well as church traditions relating to the subject. Христианская эсхатология. Христианская эсхатология — раздел эсхатологии, который отражает воззрения христиан на вопрос о Конце света, Втором Пришествии Христа и Антихристе. Христианская эсхатология, подобно иудейской эсхатологии, отвергает цикличность времени и провозглашает конец этого мира. В христианстве эсхатологию можно условно разделить на общую и частную. Первая говорит о судьбе этого мира и о том, что ожидает его в конце. Частная эсхатология учит о посмертном бытии каждого человека. Огромную роль для христианской эсхатологии играет хилиазм (или милленаризм) и мессианизм. Все христиане находятся в ожидании второго пришествия Мессии, явление которого и будет концом этого мира, и установления царства Божьего, то есть мессианизм.

* Revelation - interpretation [Толкование Книги Откровение Иоанна Богослова]. Revelation’s remarks about the future were read within mainstream, established groups in a rather low-key manner as referring to the completion of world history. This interpretation dominated the Christian discourse in many countries for a long period of time. The millennium is regarded as a doctrine about the “last things”, the future time when the final dispensation will be inaugurated and evil eradicated. Revelation 20:1–6 was understood symbolically or spiritually as having to do with the ongoing history of the church after the resurrection of Christ and the spiritual bliss the church will ultimately enter and enjoy. This interpretation became known as amillennialism. It is commonly understood as the result of the influence of such major theologians like Origen and Augustine who rejected a literal interpretation of the millennium as Christ’s reign on earth for a thousand years. Many mainstream churches ascribe to this more non-literal reading and incorporated it as their official view on the end. Where this was not the case, and groups preferred to hold on to a more literal reading, chiliasm as a doctrine was more or less tolerated as a personal point of view that did not compromise the major teachings of the church. In contrast to this position, millennialists read Scripture literally as a document with specific predictions of the end times and events. || This position continues today, as is reflected, for example, in the following elaborate remark from an Eastern Orthodox author on a website that contains several articles that are critical of millennialism: “It is not difficult to see the error of the chiliastic interpretation of the twentieth chapter of the Apocalypse. Parallel passages in Sacred Scripture clearly indicate that the ‘first resurrection’ signifies spiritual rebirth into eternal life in Christ through baptism, a resurrection through faith in Christ, according to the words: “Awake thou that sleepest and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give thee light” (Eph. 5:14). “Ye are risen with Christ”, we read many times in the Apostles (Col. 3:1 and 2:12; Eph. 2:5–6). Proceeding from this by the thousand-year reign one must understand the period of time from the very beginning of the kingdom of grace of the Church of Christ, and in particular of the triumphant Church of heaven, until the end of the world. The Church which is militant upon earth in essence also is triumphant in the victory performed by the Saviour, but it is still undergoing battle with the ‘prince of this world,’ a battle which will end with the defeat of Satan and the final casting of him into the lake of fire.” See for this, Michael Pomazansky, “The Error of Chiliasm”, [Online] http://orthochristian.com/86555.html [Accessed: 20 November 2018]. He does note, however, that early Church authors like Justin Martyr and Irenaeus subscribed to chiliasm. See further below. // Толкование Книги Откровение Иоанна Богослова ; Азбука веры - святитель Андрей Кесарийский - Толкование на Апокалипсис св. Иоанна Богослова

* Apocalypticism [Catastrophic millennialism; acute, dramatic end time expectations; Апокалиптизм]. Apocalypticism is the religious belief that there will be an apocalypse, a term which originally referred to a revelation, but now it usually refers to the belief that the end of the world is imminent, even within one's own lifetime. This belief is usually accompanied by the idea that civilization will soon come to a tumultuous end due to some sort of catastrophic global event. These views and movements often focus on cryptic revelations about a sudden, dramatic, and cataclysmic intervention of God in history; the judgment of all men; the salvation of the faithful elect; and the eventual rule of the elect with God in a renewed heaven and earth. Arising initially in Zoroastrianism, apocalypticism was developed more fully in Judaic, Christian, and Islamic eschatological speculation. Apocalypticism is often conjoined with the belief that esoteric knowledge {the cryptic revelations} will likely be revealed in a major confrontation between good and evil forces, destined to change the course of history. Apocalypses can be viewed as good, evil, ambiguous or neutral, depending on the particular religion or belief system promoting them. However, it is not exclusively a religious idea and there are end times or transitional scenarios based in modern science and technology. // Apocalypticism is a worldview. It is a fundamental cognitive orientation that makes axiomatic claims about the nature of time, space, and human existence. In the apocalyptic pattern of thought, time is linear and history is finite. Space consists of two realities, transcendent and mundane. The transcendent reality is traditionally equated with God or heaven. Mundane or everyday reality is shaped by the historic conflict between two irreducible and antagonistic forces, typically good and evil. The eschatological resolution of this conflict is predetermined, imminent, and, for the elect, salvific, in the sense of a deliverance from this reality. The revelation of this information orients existence and gives life meaning and purpose. Together, these core axioms describe an “apocalyptic minimum,” which distinguishes apocalypticism from other types of revelatory phenomena, and by which cultural expressions and social movements may be recognized as apocalyptic. An apocalypse is a literary genre, prominent in early Judaism and ancient Christianity. The archetypal example is the New Testament Revelation of John, also known as “the Apocalypse.” One of the most influential books in history, Revelation was the lodestone (if not always the focus) of Christian apocalyptic speculation throughout the Middle Ages. This speculation was almost always expressed in oracles, testaments, political prophecies, systematic theology, vision and dream reports, commentaries and other kinds of exegetical literature, homilies, sermons, drama, and lyrics, rather than in formal apocalypses, as well as in non-literary forms (see below, Medieval Apocalyptic Art and Imagery). Eschatology, or the study or doctrine of the “last things,” comes in many varieties. Apocalyptic eschatology is the eschatology of the apocalyptic worldview, and therefore reflects its propositions. Its most distinctive feature is the anticipation for the impending post-mortem judgment of the dead. Millennialism is the expectation for a collective eschatological salvation that anticipates an earthly utopia as the abode and reward of the saved. It, too, appears in a variety of forms. Messianism is the set of ideas concerning the anticipation for an end-time agent(s) who play a positive, authoritative, and usually redemptive role. In Christianity, apocalyptic speculation is always informed by the expectation of Christ’s second coming. Lorenzo DiTommaso - Apocalypticism, Millennialism, and Messianism // Апокалиптизм, эсхатологические (последние) взгляды и движения, которые сосредоточены на загадочных откровениях о внезапном, драматическом и катастрофическом вмешательстве Бога в историю; суждение всех людей; спасение избранных верных; и возможное правление избранных с Богом на обновленных небесах и земле. Возникающие в зороастризме, иранская религия , основанная на 6-century- Ьс пророка Зороастра, апокалипсизмом был разработан более полно в иудейской, христианской, и исламскими эсхатологической спекуляции и движений. См. Также эсхатологию . Апокалиптизм | богословие // Catastrophic millennialism [Apocalypticism]. Catastrophic millennialism (apocalypticism) <> progressive millennialism. Main ingredients {a.o. Tertulian}: asceticism as a form of purification (sexual and other abstinence), pessimism, hopelessness (Antichrist, Kali Yuga ("Rulers will become unreasonable: they will levy taxes unfairly. Rulers will no longer see it as their duty to promote spirituality, or to protect their subjects: they will become a danger to the world. The powerful people will dominate the poor people.")), radicalism (world rejection, destruction of the current order, violence (terrorism, suicide), pacifism, martyrdom), gender issues (rejection of marriage, androgyny) {??}, prophecies (Holy Spirit, prophetic gifts, charismatic leadership), anti-clericalism (personal connection with the divine, invalidation of the clergy (servants of the Antichrist)), rejection of private property (communal living). // "Catastrophic millennialism emanates from a deep pessimism towards society, history, and general humanity {humans are too flawed to fix the world, divine intervention required}." Eugene V. Gallagher / The Oxford Handbook of Millennialism. Edited by Catherine Wessinger // Catastrophic millennialism is the most common millennial religious pattern. In the catastrophic millennial pattern, there is belief is in an imminent and catastrophic transition to the millennial kingdom. Catastrophic millennialism involves a pessimistic view of human nature and society. Humans are so evil and corrupt that the old order has to be destroyed violently to make way for the perfected millennial kingdom. Catastrophic millennialism involves a radical dualistic worldview; reality is seen in terms of the opposition of good and evil, and this easily translates into a perspective of "us vs. them." Catastrophic millennial beliefs have the power to motivate people to take actions. Catastrophic millennialism and progressive millennialism are not mutually exclusive religious patterns. Often a movement’s theology will contain some elements of each. Catherine Wessinger - catastrophic millennialism

* Millenarianism [general expectation of change for the better; Милленаризм]. Millenarianism, belief in a coming major transformation of society, after which all things will be changed. Millenarianism exists in various cultures and religions worldwide, with various interpretations of what constitutes a transformation. These movements believe in radical changes to society after a major cataclysm or transformative event and are not necessarily linked to millennialist movements in Christianity and Zoroastrianism.  Millenarianist movements can be secular (not espousing a particular religion) or religious in nature. Many if not most millenarian groups claim that the current society and its rulers are corrupt, unjust, or otherwise wrong, and that they will soon be destroyed by a powerful force. The harmful nature of the status quo is considered intractable without the anticipated dramatic change. Henri Desroche observed that millenarian movements often envisioned three periods in which change might occur. First, the elect members of the movement will be increasingly oppressed, leading to the second period in which the movement resists the oppression. The third period brings about a new utopian age, liberating the members of the movement. In the modern world, economic rules, perceived immorality or vast conspiracies are seen as generating oppression. Only dramatic events are seen as able to change the world and the change is anticipated to be brought about, or survived, by a group of the devout and dedicated. In most millenarian scenarios, the disaster or battle to come will be followed by a new, purified world in which the believers will be rewarded. While many millennial groups are pacifistic, millenarian beliefs have been claimed as causes for people to ignore conventional rules of behavior, which can result in violence directed inwards (such as the Jonestown mass suicides) or outwards (such as the Aum Shinrikyo terrorist acts). It sometimes includes a belief in supernatural powers or predetermined victory. In some cases, millenarians withdraw from society to await the intervention of God. This is also known as world-rejection.  Millenarian ideologies or religious sects sometimes appear in oppressed peoples, with examples such as the 19th-century Ghost Dance movement among Native Americans, early Mormons, and the 19th and 20th-century cargo cults among isolated Pacific Islanders. The Catechism of the Catholic Church follows a discussion of the church's ultimate trial: "The Antichrist's deception already begins to take shape in the world every time the claim is made to realize within history that messianic hope which can only be realized beyond history through the eschatological judgement. The Church has rejected even modified forms of this falsification of the kingdom to come under the name of millenarianism, especially the 'intrinsically perverse' political form of a secular messianism." Милленаризм. Милленаризм (лат. mīllēnārius — «содержащий тысячу») — мировоззрение или убеждения (религиозные, политические) религиозной, социальной или политической группы или движения, связанные с верой в грядущую фундаментальную трансформацию общества, после которой «всё изменится». Милленаризм существует в различных культурах и религиях по всему миру, с различными интерпретациями того, что представляет собой эта трансформация. Эти движения верят в радикальные изменения в обществе после крупного катаклизма или преобразующего события и не обязательно связаны с тысячелетними движениями в христианстве и зороастризме. Милленаристские движения могут быть светскими (не поддерживающими определенную религию) или религиозными по своему характеру. (..) {<>} Христианский милленниализм, или хилиазм, — учение, в основе которого лежит буквальное толкование пророчества Откр. 20:1-4, говорящего о тысячелетнем Царстве Божием на земле в конце истории. // The Death of Secular Messianism by Anthony Mansueto argues that, the claims of secularists notwithstanding, modernity did not so much abandon humanity's historic search for the divine, but rather transposed it into a new, innerworldly key. This "secret religion of high modernity" came in both positivistic and humanistic variants. The first sought to overcome finitude by means of scientific and technological progress. The second sought to overcome contingency by creating a collective Subject--the Modern Democratic State or the Communist Party--in and through which human beings would become the masters of their own destiny. In making his case for this thesis, the author outlines a new political-theological and social-theoretical perspective which saves what is best in modernity--its focus on human creative activity and its commitment to rational autonomy and democratic citizenship--while re-engaging humanity's great spiritual traditions.

* Millennialism [Chiliasm ??, future age of justice, social utopia, messianic; Хилиазм, Милленниализм].  Millennialism (from millennium, Latin for "a thousand years") or chiliasm {Christian-specific ?? confusing / confused terminology} (from the Greek equivalent) is a belief advanced by some religious denominations that a Golden Age or Paradise will occur on Earth prior to the final judgment and future eternal state of the "World to Come".  Christianity and Judaism have both produced messianic movements which featured millennialist teachings—such as the notion that an earthly kingdom of God was at hand. These millenarian movements often led to considerable social unrest. The early Christian concepts of millenialism had ramifications far beyond strictly religious concerns during the centuries to come, as various theorists blended and enhanced them with ideas of utopia. (...) Social movements. Millennial social movements, a specific form of millenarianism, have as their basis some concept of a cycle of one-thousand years. Sometimes[quantify] the two terms[which?] are used[by whom?] as synonyms, but purists regard this as not entirely accurate. Millennial social movements need not have a religious foundation, but they must[need quotation to verify] have a vision of an apocalypse that can be utopian or dystopian. Those associated with millennial social movements are "prone to be violent",[citation needed] with certain types of millennialism connected to violence {terrorism, suicide}. In progressive millennialism, the "transformation of the social order is gradual and humans play a role in fostering that transformation". However, catastrophic millennialism "deems the current social order as irrevocably corrupt, and total destruction of this order is necessary as the precursor to the building of a new, godly order". However the link between millennialism and violence may be problematic, as new religious movements may stray from the catastrophic view as time progresses {i.e. as they become institutes themselves; seen by the radicals as corruption of the initial purity}.[need quotation to verify] Хилиазм. Хилиа́зм (от греч. χῑλιάς «тысяча»), или милленниали́зм (от лат. mille «тысяча» + лат. annus «год») — богословское понятие (теория), представления в рамках христианской эсхатологии о «периоде торжества правды Божьей на земле», в котором Иисус Христос и христиане будут править миром на протяжении тысячи лет. Как считают приверженцы хилиазма, по окончании Тысячелетнего царства в соответствии с библейским пророчеством (Откр. 20) наступит время Страшного суда, конца истории и установления будущего вечного состояния — под новым небом на новой Земле (Откр. 21:1). Некоторые из них считают, что между окончанием Тысячелетнего царства и Страшным судом будет короткий период, в который состоится решающая битва с сатаной. Как отмечал историк религии и философ академик Л. Н. Митрохин, став «выражением мечты широких масс о земной справедливости и устранении социального зла», хилиазм на протяжении всей церковной истории вызывал неоднозначное отношение. Это учение нередко использовалось в политических целях, а дискуссия о нём порой принимала ожесточённый характер. В разные эпохи доминировали различные взгляды на Тысячелетнее царство, начиная от буквального понимания и до самого утончённого спиритуалистического толкования. В настоящее время различные варианты милленаризма (преимущественно премилленаризм) получили распространение в некоторых поздних протестантских церквях (баптисты, адвентисты, пятидесятники, мессианские иудеи и другие конфессии, эсхатология которых испытала влияние диспенсационализма). Нередко под милленаризмом в широком смысле понимают учение о периоде торжества правды Бога на земле.

* Chiliasm [Christian Millennialism ??, literal interpretation of Revelation; Христианский милленниализм, хилиазм] Хилиазм. Хилиа́зм (от греч. χῑλιάς «тысяча»), или милленниали́зм (от лат. mille «тысяча» + лат. annus «год») — богословское понятие (теория), представления в рамках христианской эсхатологии о «периоде торжества правды Божьей на земле», в котором Иисус Христос и христиане будут править миром на протяжении 1000 лет. Как считают приверженцы хилиазма, по окончании Тысячелетнего царства наступит время Страшного суда, конца истории и установления будущего вечного состояния — под новым небом на новой Земле (Откр. 21:1). Некоторые из них считают, что между окончанием Тысячелетнего царства и Страшным судом будет короткий период, в который состоится решающая битва с сатаной. Как отмечает историк религии и философ академик Л. Н. Митрохин, став «выражением мечты широких масс о земной справедливости и устранении социального зла», хилиазм на протяжении всей церковной истории вызывал неоднозначное отношение. Это учение нередко использовалось в политических целях, а дискуссия о нём порой принимала ожесточённый характер. В разные эпохи доминировали различные взгляды на Тысячелетнее царство, начиная от буквального понимания и до самого утончённого спиритуалистического толкования. В настоящее время различные варианты милленаризма (преимущественно премилленаризм) получили распространение в некоторых поздних протестантских церквях (баптисты, адвентисты, пятидесятники, мессианские иудеи и другие конфессии, эсхатология которых испытала влияние диспенсационализма {"исторический процесс как последовательное распределение божественного Откровения по периодам, каждому из которых соответствует особый тип договорных отношений человечества с Богом"}). Нередко под милленаризмом в широком смысле понимают учение о периоде торжества правды Бога на земле. В апокрифах. В период между написанием Ветхого и Нового Заветов, а также в 1 веке пророчества о мессианском Царстве на земле появляются все чаще — в апокрифах (в Книге Еноха, Апокалипсисе Варуха, Третьей Книге Ездры). Милленаризм и философия. Русский философ Николай Бердяев писал: «В хилиастическую идею вложена мечта человека о счастье и блаженстве, о мессианском пире, о рае не только на небе, но и на земле, не только в вечности, но ещё в нашем историческом времени». Он видел в этом парадокс времени и вечности. «Мы переносим на вечность, что относится лишь ко времени, — писал он. — Невозможно мыслить совершенства, полноты, цельности во времени. Мысль о совершенстве во времени вызывает томящую скуку, представляется остановкой творческого движения, самодовольством». Конфликт между сторонниками и противниками хилиазма вызван отчасти тем, что человек мыслит в рамках истории, он всегда внутри истории, в то время как Тысячелетнее царство, по Бердяеву, конец истории, явление внеисторическое. «Мы повсюду оказываемся у границ, если хотим достигнуть внешних горизонтов», — писал философ Карл Ясперс. // Христианский милленниализм, или хилиазм, — учение, в основе которого лежит буквальное толкование пророчества Откр. 20:1-4, говорящего о тысячелетнем Царстве Божием на земле в конце истории. (Милленаризм) // chilasm, millenialism {Christian millenarianism}, belief that "Christ will reign" for 1000 years prior to the final judgment and future eternal state.

* Historicism [prophecy in fulfillment; Историцизм]. In Christian eschatology, Historicism is a method of interpretation of biblical prophecies which associates symbols with historical persons, nations or events. The main primary texts of interest to Christian historicists include apocalyptic literature, such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation. It sees the prophecies of Daniel as being fulfilled throughout history, extending from the past through the present to the future. It is sometimes called the continuous historical view. Commentators have also applied historicist methods to ancient Jewish history, to the Roman Empire, to Islam, to the Papacy, to the Modern era, and to the end time. The historicist method starts with Daniel 2 and works progressively through consecutive prophecies of the book–chapters 7, 8 and 11–resulting in a view of Daniel's prophecies very different from preterism and futurism. According to William Shea, Antiochus {Hellenistic king; persecution of the Jews of Judea and Samaria, and the rebellion of the Jewish Maccabees} is thus scaled down to a very modest subheading under the Greek kingdom. "This is the most ancient system of interpretation in both Jewish and Christian traditions. So far it is the only one which respects the historical intention of the biblical author as such. The preterist approach makes the Bible lie {??}, the futurist approach makes the Bible a work of science fiction; neither one seriously takes the historical data into account." Almost all Protestant Reformers from the Reformation into the 19th century held historicist views. Историцизм (эсхатология). Историцизм — точка зрения в христианской эсхатологии, согласно которой события пророчеств книги Откровение (а также связанных с ними пророчеств в других книгах Библии) исполняются на протяжении всей истории церкви, от апостольских времен и до Второго пришествия Иисуса Христа. В богословии историцизма важную роль играет тема борьбы истинной церкви и отступничества. Со времен Реформации и по XIX век историцизм, как метод интерпретации пророчеств, использовался почти всеми богословами во всех протестантских конфессиях. В XIX и ХХ веках распространенность идей историцизма в протестантском богословии сильно уменьшилась результате роста популярности футуризма, претеризма и идеализма. Альтернативными интерпретациями в христианской эсхатологии являются футуризм, претеризм и идеализм. // Christian Historicism. Eschatological. In Christianity, the term historicism refers to the confessional Protestant form of prophetical interpretation which holds that the fulfillment of biblical prophecy has occurred throughout history and continues to occur; as opposed to other methods which limit the time-frame of prophecy-fulfillment to the past or to the future. Dogmatic and ecclesiastic. There is also a particular opinion in ecclesiastical history and in the history of dogmas which has been described as historicist by Pope Pius XII in the encyclical Humani generis. "They add that the history of dogmas consists in the reporting of the various forms in which revealed truth has been clothed, forms that have succeeded one another in accordance with the different teachings and opinions that have arisen over the course of the centuries." // Historicism is a method of interpretation in Christian eschatology which interprets biblical prophecies as actual historical events and identifies symbolic beings with historical persons or societies in the history of the church. This interpretation was favored by the Protestant reformers such as John Wycliff and Martin Luther, as well as other prominent figures such as Isaac Newton. According to this interpretation, the beast {of the Apocalypse} and false prophet were most commonly identified with the papacy in its political and religious aspects {pope-Antichrist}. // Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation. Historicism is a method of interpretation in Christian eschatology which associates biblical prophecies with actual historical events and identifies symbolic beings with historical persons or societies; it has been applied to the Book of Revelation by many writers. The Historicist view follows a straight line of continuous fulfillment of prophecy which starts in Daniel's time and goes through John's writing of the Book of Revelation all the way to the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. One of the most influential aspects of the early Protestant historicist paradigm was the assertion that scriptural identifiers of the Antichrist were matched only by the institution of the Papacy. Particular significance and concern were the Papal claims of authority over the Church through Apostolic Succession, and the State through the Divine Right of Kings. When the Papacy aspires to exercise authority beyond its religious realm into civil affairs, on account of the Papal claim to be the Vicar of Christ, then the institution was fulfilling the more perilous biblical indicators of the Antichrist. Martin Luther wrote this view into the Smalcald Articles of 1537; this view was not novel and had been leveled at various popes throughout the centuries, even by Roman Catholic saints. It was then widely popularized in the 16th century, via sermons, drama, books, and broadside publication. The alternate methods of prophetic interpretation, Futurism and Preterism were derived from Jesuit writings, whose counter-reformation efforts were aimed at opposing this interpretation that the Antichrist was the Papacy or the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Origins in Judaism and Early Church. The interpreters using the historicist approach for Revelation had their origins in the Jewish apocalyptic writings, such as those in the book of Daniel, which predicted the future time between their writing and the end of the world. Throughout most of history since the predictions of the book of Daniel, historicism has been widely used. This approach can be found in the works of Josephus, who interpreted the fourth kingdom of Daniel 2 as the Roman empire with a future power as the stone "not cut by human hands", that would overthrow the Romans. We also find it in the early church in the works of Irenaeus and Tertullian, who interpreted the fourth kingdom of Daniel as the Roman empire and believed that in the future it was going to be broken up into smaller kingdoms, as the iron mixed with clay. It is also found in the writings of Clement of Alexandria, and Jerome, as well as other well-known church historians and scholars of the early church. But it has been associated particularly with Protestantism and the Reformation. It was the standard interpretation of the Lollard movement, which was regarded as the precursor to the Protestant Reformation, and it was known as the Protestant interpretation until modern times.

* Preterism [prophecy fulfilled, supersessionist; Претеризм]. Preterism, a Christian eschatological view, interprets some (partial preterism) or all (full preterism) prophecies of the Bible as events which have already happened. This school of thought interprets the Book of Daniel as referring to events that happened from the 7th century BC until the first century AD, while seeing the prophecies of the Book of Revelation as events that happened in the first century AD. Preterism holds that Ancient Israel finds its continuation or fulfillment in the Christian church at the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. Historically, preterists and non-preterists have generally agreed that the Jesuit Luis de Alcasar (1554–1613) wrote the first systematic preterist exposition of prophecy Vestigatio arcani sensus in Apocalypsi (published in 1614) during the Counter-Reformation. // Preterism is a Christian eschatological view that interprets prophecies of the Bible, especially the Books of Daniel and Revelation, by reference to events that had already happened. Preterist academic scholars generally identify the first beast from the sea with the Roman Empire, particularly with Emperor Nero. // See also: Eusebius: prophecies: abolition and complete destruction of Hebrew authority; desolation of Jerusalem and its Temple; ceasing of the Mosaic worship; the coming of the Christ, which I will presently shew to have been fulfilled". Church has superseded Israel (has become the new Israel) {??} Претеризм. Претеризм — интерпретация христианской эсхатологии, согласно которой большая часть пророческих описаний Последнего Времени, которые содержатся в Библии, относятся к событиям, уже произошедшим в первый век существования христианства. В частности, к 70-му году н. э., когда был разрушен Иерусалимский храм. Согласно претеризму, начиная с этого события под «Израилем» следует понимать христианскую церковь, которая стала естественным продолжением существования Народа Божьего на земле. Само понятие «претеризм» происходит от лат. praeter (прэтер) — «проходить мимо, прошедшее, прежнее». Последователей такого учения называют претеристами. Среди них выделяются две группы, которые можно условно обозначить как полных претеристов (последовательных, гиперпретеристов, крайних) и частичных претеристов (умеренных, традиционных). Последние, в частности, относят к будущему Второе пришествие Христа, воскресение, создание Богом «нового неба и новой земли». Претеризм характерен для мировоззрения некоторых групп протестантов. В частности, для либеральных рационалистов среди исследователей Библии, которые также склонны с недоверием относиться к «чудесной» стороне Нового Завета. Таким образом, претеризм можно идентифицировать как форму религиозного скептицизма. Альтернативными интерпретациями в христианской эсхатологии являются историцизм, футуризм и идеализм.

* Covenant theology [Church as continuation of Israel]. Covenant theology (also known as covenantalism, federal theology, or federalism) is a conceptual overview and interpretive framework for understanding the overall structure of the Bible. It uses the theological concept of a covenant as an organizing principle for Christian theology. The standard form of covenant theology views the history of God's dealings with mankind, from Creation to Fall to Redemption to Consummation, under the framework of three overarching theological covenants: those of redemption, of works, and of grace. As a framework for biblical interpretation, covenant theology stands in contrast to dispensationalism in regard to the relationship between the Old Covenant (with national Israel) and the New Covenant (with the house of Israel [Jeremiah 31:31] in Christ's blood). That such a framework exists appears at least feasible, since from New Testament times the Bible of Israel has been known as the Old Testament (i.e., Covenant; see 2 Cor 3:14 [NRSV], "they [Jews] hear the reading of the old covenant"), in contrast to the Christian addition which has become known as the New Testament (or Covenant). Detractors of covenant theology often refer to it as "supersessionism" or as "replacement theology", due to the perception that it teaches that God has abandoned the promises made to the Jews and has replaced the Jews with Christians as His chosen people on the Earth. Covenant theologians deny that God has abandoned His promises to Israel, but see the fulfillment of the promises to Israel in the person and the work of the Messiah, Jesus of Nazareth, who established the church in organic continuity with Israel, not as a separate replacement entity. Many covenant theologians have also seen a distinct future promise of gracious restoration for unregenerate Israel {Christian Zionism} {??}. {Adamic covenant, Noahic covenant, Abrahamic covenant, Mosaic covenant, Moabite covenant, Levite covenant, Davidic covenant, New Covenant (David)} // New Covenant theology. New Covenant theology (or NCT) is a Christian theological position teaching that the person and work of Jesus Christ is the central focus of the Bible. One distinctive result of this is that Old Testament Laws {incl. Ten Commandments} have been abrogated or cancelled with Jesus' crucifixion, and replaced with the Law of Christ of the New Covenant. It shares similarities with, and yet is distinct from, dispensationalism and Covenant theology.

* Supersessionism [replacement theology, Church replaces Israel; Теология замещения; Суперсессионизм]. Supersessionism, also called replacement theology, is a Christian doctrine which asserts that the New Covenant through Jesus Christ supersedes the Old Covenant, which was made exclusively with the Jewish people. In Christianity, supersessionism is a theological view on the current status of the church in relation to the Jewish people and Judaism. It holds the view that the Christian Church has succeeded the Israelites as the definitive people of God or it holds the view that the New Covenant has replaced or superseded the Mosaic covenant. From a supersessionist's "point of view, just by continuing to exist [outside the Church], the Jews dissent". This view directly contrasts with dual-covenant theology which holds that the Mosaic covenant remains valid for Jews. Supersessionism has formed a core tenet of Christian churches for the majority of their existence. Christian traditions that have championed dual-covenant theology (including the Roman Catholic, Reformed and Methodist teachings of this doctrine) have taught that the moral law continues to stand. As a result of the Holocaust, some mainstream Christian theologians and denominations have rejected supersessionism.: 2–3  The Islamic tradition views Islam as the final and most authentic expression of Abrahamic prophetic monotheism, superseding both Jewish and Christian teachings. The doctrine of tahrif teaches that earlier monotheistic scriptures or their interpretations have been corrupted, while the Quran presents a pure version of the divine message that they originally contained. Теология замещения. Теология замещения, Суперсессионизм (англ. Supersessionism, от англ. «supersession») — условное название экклезиологической концепции в рамках христианской теологии, согласно которым Новозаветная Церковь, как сообщество избранных, заменила собой Израиль, как избранный народ; и все обетования, адресованные в Библии евреям, после заключения Нового Завета адресованы христианам. Основанием для замещения стало предание Мессии — Иисуса Христа евреями на распятие и отречение от Него, вследствие чего Ветхий Завет (заключённый только с евреями) заменяется Новым Заветом, где избранными детьми Божьими становятся представители всех народов. «Замещённые» иудеи при этом становятся богооставленным народом. Мф. 23:37–39, Лк. 13:34 Слово «суперсессионизм» — транслитерация английского слова supersessionism, производного от латинского глагола supersede, в значении «замещать» впервые использованного в 1642 году. Западные Отцы Церкви в том же значении использовали слово succedere, усиленное приставкой super (означает также наследовать, входить во что-либо). Таким образом, суперсессионизм — современный термин, используемый для описания уже существовавших прежде взглядов. Сторонники христианского сионизма отождествляют взгляды своих оппонентов с теологией замещения и нередко рассматривают её как богословское обоснование антисемитизма. Также подчеркивается, что теология замещения господствовала в Церкви на протяжении многих веков. По утверждению этих авторов, её придерживался византийский богослов Иоанн Златоуст в «Словах против иудеев» (IV век), киевский летописец Нестор в «Повести временных лет» (XIII век) и немецкий реформатор Мартин Лютер в трактатах Иисус Христос родился евреем и «О евреях и их лжи» (XVI век). Теология замещения была подвергнута ревизии в современной Католической церкви. Во время правления папы Павла VI — были приняты исторические решения Второго Ватиканского собора (1962—1965 годов). Собором была принята Декларация «Nostra Ætate» («В наше время»), подготовленная при ещё при Иоанне XXIII, авторитет которого сыграл в этом существенную роль. Согласно декларации: «…несмотря на то, что Церковь есть новый народ Божий, евреи не должны быть представлены как отвергнутые или проклятые Богом и что это как бы вытекает из Священного Писания.»

* Premillennialism [literal interpretation, rapture; Премилленаризм]. Premillennialism, in Christian eschatology, is the belief that Jesus will physically return to the Earth (the Second Coming) before the Millennium, a literal thousand-year golden age of peace. The doctrine is called "premillennialism" because it holds that Jesus's physical return to Earth will occur prior to the inauguration of the Millennium. Premillennialism is based upon a literal interpretation of Revelation 20:1–6 in the New Testament, which describes Jesus's reign in a period of a thousand years. However, the premillennialist view is not shared by all Christians. Premillennialism is often used to refer specifically to those who adhere to the beliefs in an earthly millennial reign of Christ as well as a rapture of the faithful coming before (dispensational) or after (historic) the Great Tribulation preceding the Millennium. For the last century, the belief has been common in Evangelicalism according to surveys on this topic. Amillenialists do not view the thousand years mentioned in Revelation as a literal thousand years but see the number "thousand" as symbolic and numerological. Premillennialism is distinct from the other views such as postmillennialism which views the millennial rule as occurring before the second coming. (...) Irenaeus, the late 2nd century bishop of Lyon, was an outspoken premillennialist. He is best known for his voluminous tome written against the 2nd century Gnostic threat, commonly called Against Heresies. In the fifth book of Against Heresies, Irenaeus concentrates primarily on eschatology. In one passage he defends premillennialism by arguing that a future earthly kingdom is necessary because of God's promise to Abraham, he wrote “The promise remains steadfast... God promised him the inheritance of the land. Yet, Abraham did not receive it during all the time of his journey there. Accordingly, it must be that Abraham, together with his seed (that is, those who fear God and believe in Him), will receive it at the resurrection of the just. Irenaeus and Justin represent two of the most outspoken premillennialists of the pre-Nicean church. // Revelation 20 And I saw an angel coming down out of heaven, having the key to the Abyss and holding in his hand a great chain. 2 He seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the devil, or Satan, and bound him for a thousand years. 3 He threw him into the Abyss, and locked and sealed it over him, to keep him from deceiving the nations anymore until the thousand years were ended. After that, he must be set free for a short time.  4 I saw thrones on which were seated those who had been given authority to judge. And I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded because of their testimony about Jesus and because of the word of God. They had not worshiped the beast or its image and had not received its mark on their foreheads or their hands. They came to life and reigned with Christ a thousand years. 5 (The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection. 6 Blessed and holy are those who share in the first resurrection. The second death has no power over them, but they will be priests of God and of Christ and will reign with him for a thousand years. Премилленаризм. Премилленаризм в христианской эсхатологии — это вера в то, что пришествие Христа будет предшествовать Тысячелетнему царству, «периоду торжества правды Божьей на земле», в котором Иисус Христос и христиане будут править миром на протяжении 1000 лет. Премилленаризм основан на буквальном толковании 20-й главы Откровений Иоанна Богослова в Новом Завете, в которой упоминается царствование Христа в течение тысячи лет. Премилленаризм разделяется не всеми христианами. В настоящее время премилленаризм получил распространение в некоторых поздних протестантских деноминациях, в первую очередь среди евангельских христиан (баптисты, адвентисты, пятидесятники, мессианские иудеи и другие конфессии, эсхатология которых испытала влияние диспенсационализма). Католики, православные, англикане, лютеране, как правило, придерживаются амилленаризма и отрицают буквальность тысячелетнего правления Христа, не считая Тысячелетнее царство событием будущего, видя число «тысяча» как символическое и нумерологическое. Амилленаристы полагают, что Христос уже сейчас восседает на троне Давида, и что именно текущий церковный век является царством под предводительством Христа. Помимо премилленаризма и амилленаризма так же существует постмилленаризм, который рассматривает тысячелетнее правление Христа как происходящее до второго пришествия. // Although some scholars, such as Norman Cohn and Peter Toon, have suggested that the Council of Ephesus rejected premillennialism, this is a misconception, and there is no evidence of the Council making any such declaration. [E17]

* Sabbatical millennialism [seventh age, universal sabbath]. "Millennialism I use in distinction to chiliasm, in that it refers to eschatological expectations anticipated at the turn of a millennium, a belief set in motion by the ecclesiastical teaching of the sabbatical millennium, the teaching that created the apocalyptic meaning of anno Domini and anno Passionis 1000 {Anno Passionis: years since the Passion of Christ. Victorius placed the Passion in AD 28 (Victorius of Aquitaine)}." Richard Landes - The Fear of an Apocalyptic Year 1000: Augustinian Historiography, Medieval and Modern (PDF) // Year 6000. According to classical Jewish sources, the Hebrew year 6000 (from sunset of 29 September 2239 until nightfall of 16 September 2240 on the Gregorian calendar) marks the latest time for the initiation of the Messianic Age. The Talmud, Midrash, and the Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, state that the date by which the Messiah must appear is 6,000 years from creation. According to tradition, the Hebrew calendar started at the time of Creation, placed at 3761 BCE. The current (2021/2022) Hebrew year is 5782. The belief that the seventh millennium will correspond to the Messianic Age is founded upon a universalized application of the concept of Shabbat—the 7th day of the week—the sanctified 'day of rest'. // Millennial Day Theory. The Millennial day theory, the Millennium sabbath hypothesis, or the Sabbath millennium theory, is a theory in Christian eschatology in which the Second Coming of Christ will occur 6,000 years after the creation of mankind, followed by 1,000 years of peace and harmony. It is a very popular belief accepted by certain premillennialists who usually promote young earth creationism. The view takes the stance that each millennium is actually a day according to God (as found in Psalm 90:4 and 2 Peter 3:8), and that eventually at the end of the 6,000 years since the creation, Jesus will return. It teaches that the 7th millennium is actually called the Sabbath Millennium, in which Jesus will ultimately set up his perfect kingdom and allow his followers to rest. The Sabbath Millennium is believed to be synonymous with the Millennial Reign of Christ that is found in Revelation 20:1-6.

* Anno Mundi [year since world creation; "от сотворения мира"]. Anno Mundi (from Latin "in the year of the world"; Hebrew: Livryat ha-olam, "to the creation of the world"), abbreviated as AM or A.M., or Year After Creation, is a calendar era based on the biblical accounts of the creation of the world and subsequent history. Two such calendar eras have seen notable use historically: Since the Middle Ages, the Hebrew calendar has been based on rabbinic calculations of the year of creation from the Hebrew Masoretic Text of the bible. This calendar is used within Jewish communities for religious purposes and is one of two official calendars in Israel. On the Hebrew calendar, the day begins at sunset. The calendar's epoch, corresponding to the calculated date of the world's creation, is equivalent to sunset on the Julian proleptic calendar date 6 October 3761 BC. The new year begins at Rosh Hashanah, in Tishrei. Anno mundi 5782, or AM 5782 (meaning the 5782nd year since the creation of the world) began at sunset on 6 September 2021 on the Gregorian calendar. The Byzantine calendar was used in the Eastern Roman Empire and many Christian Orthodox countries and Eastern Orthodox Churches and was based on the Septuagint text of the Bible. That calendar is similar to the Julian calendar except that its reference date is equivalent to 1 September 5509 BC on the Julian proleptic calendar. That would make the present year the 7530th year since the creation of the world.

* Anno Domini [year since conception/birth of Christ]. AD is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus. In modern times, incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity. The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era (Era of the Martyrs - a method of numbering years, named for the Roman Emperor Diocletian who instigated the last major persecution against Christians in the Empire) that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. (...) It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time, it was believed by some that the resurrection of the dead and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world. Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius.

* Chillegorism [figurative interpretation, Postmillennialism, Amillenialism; Хиллегоризм]. Chillegorism (Greek: chilias, "one thousand" and alligoría, "allegory") is a millenarian doctrine which is the opposite of Chiliasm [Millennialism].  It is based on a figurative interpretation of the prophecy of Revelation 20:1-4 about the millennial reign of Christ together with the righteous. The two types of Chillegorism are Postmillennialism {Christ's second coming as occurring after (Latin post-) the "Millennium", i.e. after God's kingdom  on Earth has been built (by Christians)} and Amillennialism {there will be no [physical] millennial reign of the righteous on earth}. Amillennarists interpret the thousand years symbolically to refer either to a temporary bliss of souls in heaven before the general resurrection, or to the infinite bliss of the righteous after the general resurrection. Mainline denominations such as Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Catholic are generally amillennial and interpret this passage of Revelation as pertaining to the present time, when Christ reigns in Heaven with the departed saints; such an interpretation views the symbolism of Revelation as referring to a spiritual battle rather than a physical battle on earth. Amillennialists do not view the millennium mentioned in Revelation as pertaining to a literal thousand years, but rather as symbolic, and see the kingdom of Christ as already present in the church beginning with the Pentecost in the first book of Acts. Postmillennialism, or Postmillenarism, is a type of Chillegorism which teaches that the Second Coming of Christ will occur after the millennial reign of the righteous; the reign here is understood as something already happening or something that will happen in the future. In Postmillenarism, the Millennium is seen as not exactly a 1,000 years but as an extended period of some limited duration. Amillennialism is a type of Chillegorism which teaches that there will be no millennial reign of the righteous on earth. Amillennarists interpret the thousand years symbolically to refer either to a temporary bliss of souls in heaven before the general resurrection, or to the infinite bliss of the righteous after the general resurrection. Хиллегоризм. Хиллегоризм (от греч. тысяча, и иносказание) – учение, в основе которого лежит переносное толкование пророчества Откр 20:1-4 о тысячелетнем периоде царствования праведников со Христом. Хиллегоризм - это милленарное учение, противоположное Хилиазму. Хилиазм (от греч. тысяча) – учение, в основе которого лежит буквальное толкование пророчества Откр 20:1-4 о тысячелетнем периоде царствования праведников со Христом. Хиллегоризм не имеет единой концепции, общепринятой большинством сторонников этого учения, поэтому составление краткого изложения доктрины хиллегоризма представляется весьма затруднительным. Для понимания многообразия хиллегорических подходов наиболее рациональным будет рассмотрение классификации хиллегоризма в его основных направлениях. Разновидностями хиллегоризма являются: Постмилленаризм и Амилленаризм. Постмилленаризм или Постмиллениализм (от лат. mille – тысяча; префикс «пост» – после) – хиллегорическое учение, согласно которому Второе пришествие Христа состоится после тысячелетнего периода царствования праведников, либо уже наступившего, либо ожидаемого в будущем. Как правило, постмилленаризм подразумевает под тысячелетним периодом не ровно 1000 лет, но некий конечный протяженный период времени. Амилленаризм или Амиллениализм (от лат. mille – тысяча; префикс «а» – отрицание) – хиллегорическое учение, согласно которому тысячелетнего периода царствования праведников на Земле не будет. Под образом тысячелетия амилленаристы понимают либо временное блаженство душ умерших на небесах до всеобщего воскресения, либо бесконечное блаженство праведников после всеобщего воскресения. Некоторые исследователи не видят принципиальной разницы между постмилленаризмом и амилленаризмом, т.е. придерживаются хиллегоризма. // See also: Augustine (City of God).

* Amillennialism [symbolic interpretation; Амилленаризм]. Amillenarism or Amillennialism (from Latin mille, one thousand; "a" being a negation prefix) is a type of chillegorism which teaches that there will be no millennial reign of the righteous on earth. Amillennarists interpret the thousand years symbolically to refer either to a temporary bliss of souls in heaven before the general resurrection, or to the infinite bliss of the righteous after the general resurrection. This view in Christian eschatology does not hold that Jesus Christ will physically reign on the earth for exactly 1,000 years. This view contrasts with some postmillennial interpretations and with premillennial interpretations of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation. The amillennial view regards the "thousand years" mentioned in Revelation 20 as a symbolic number, not as a literal description; amillennialists hold that the millennium has already begun and is identical with the current church age. Amillennialism holds that while Christ's reign during the millennium is spiritual in nature, at the end of the church age, Christ will return in final judgment and establish a permanent reign in the new heaven and new earth. Many proponents dislike the term "amillennialism" because it emphasizes their differences with premillennialism rather than their beliefs about the millennium. "Amillennial" was actually coined in a pejorative way by those who hold premillennial views. Some proponents also prefer alternate names such as nunc-millennialism (that is, now-millennialism) or realized millennialism, although these other names have achieved only limited acceptance and usage. (...) The perfect Amillenarism. Marcion (c. 85 – 160) taught that only souls will resurrect, rejecting the bodily resurrection. He followed the teachings of Simon Magus (1st century) and Cerdo (1st-2nd centuries) [See. St. Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies, 1, 27; St. Epiphanius of Cyprus, Panarion. Against the Marcionites, Heresies 22 and 42]. Origen (c. 185 – 254) further developed the Amillenarism of Marcion in his teaching about the reign of the saints in heaven while rejecting the idea of the Kingdom of the righteous coming down to the earth [On the First Principles, book 2, chapter 11; Against Celsus, book 2, chapter 5]. This teaching was later supported by Gaius of Rome (died c. 217) [See Eusebius], St. Dionysius of Alexandria (died 265) [See Eusebius], and Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263 – 340) [Church History, volume 3, chapter 28; volume 7, chapters 24-25]. Emanuel Swedenborg (1688 – 1772) taught about the reign of saints in heaven but denied the bodily resurrection [The Open Apocalypse, chapter 20]. (...) The imperfect Amillenarism. (...) St. Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306 – 373) believed that the first resurrection would occur simultaneously with the second and both would constitute "one resurrection". The Millennium signifies "the immensity of eternal life" [Discourse 96. On repentance]. (...) Teaching. Amillennialism rejects the idea of a future millennium in which Christ will reign on earth prior to the eternal state beginning, but holds: 1) that Jesus is presently reigning from heaven, seated at the right hand of God the Father, 2) that Jesus also is and will remain with the church until the end of the world, as he promised at the Ascension, 3) that at Pentecost (or days earlier, at the Ascension), the millennium began, citing Acts 2:16-21, where Peter quotes Joel 2:28-32 on the coming of the kingdom, to explain what is happening, 4) and that, therefore the Church and its spread of the good news is indeed Christ's Kingdom and forever will be. Medieval and Reformation periods. Amillennialism gained ground after Christianity became a legal religion {need for stability rather than revolution}. It was systematized by St. Augustine in the 4th century, and this systematization carried amillennialism over as the dominant eschatology of the Medieval and Reformation periods. Augustine was originally a premillennialist, but he retracted that view, claiming the doctrine was carnal. Амилленаризм. Амиллениализм (греческое: а- «не»/«без» + millennialism), или милленаризм, в христианской эсхатологии, утверждает что тысячелетнее царствование Христа после его вознесения началось и будет продолжаться до возвращения Христа. Однако амиллениалисты не верят в буквальную тысячу лет правления. Эта точка зрения контрастирует с некоторыми интерпретациями постмилленниалистов и с толкованием премиллениализма 20-й главы Книги Откровений Иоанна Богослова в Новом Завете. Амиллениалисты считают «тысячу лет», упомянутую в 20-й главе Откровения Иоанна Богослова, символическим числом, а не буквальным описанием; амиллениалисты считают, что тысячелетнее царство уже началось и совпадает с нынешним церковным периодом. Амилленаризм утверждает, что в то время как царствование Христа в течение тысячелетия является духовным по своей природе, в конце церковного периода, Христос вернется на Страшный Суд и установит будущее вечного состояние — под новым небом на новой Земле.(Откр. 21:1).

* Futurism [prophesied events yet to happen; Футуризм]. Futurism is a Christian eschatological view that interprets portions of the Book of Revelation, the Book of Ezekiel, and the Book of Daniel as future events in a literal, physical, apocalyptic, and global context. By comparison, other Christian eschatological views interpret these passages as past events in a [<>] symbolic, historic context (Preterism and Historicism), or as present-day events in a non-literal and [<>] spiritual context (Idealism). Futurist beliefs usually have a close association with Premillennialism and Dispensationalism. (...) Some elements of the futurist interpretation of Revelation and Daniel appeared in the early centuries of the Christian Church. However, the view was not popular. Irenaeus of Lyon (died c. 202), for instance, subscribed to the view that Daniel's 70th week awaited a future fulfillment. (...) The futurist view assigns all or most of the prophecy to the future, shortly before the Second Coming. Футуризм (эсхатология). У этого термина есть также другое значение; см. Футуризм. Футуризм — точка зрения в христианской эсхатологии, согласно которой большинство событий пророчеств книги Откровение (а также связанных с ними пророчеств в других книгах Библии) сбудутся в будущем, многие из этих событий, вероятно, будут близки друг к другу по времени. Альтернативными интерпретациями в христианской эсхатологии являются историцизм, претеризм и идеализм.

* Idealism [allegorical/spritual interpretation, Renaissance; Идеализм, "духовная интерпретация"]. In the context of Christian eschatology, idealism (also called the spiritual approach, the allegorical approach, the nonliteral approach, and many other names) involves an interpretation of the Book of Revelation that sees all of the imagery of the book as symbolic. Jacob Taubes writes that idealist eschatology came about as Renaissance thinkers began to doubt that the Kingdom of Heaven had been or would be established on earth, but still believed in its establishment. Rather than the Kingdom of Heaven manifesting itself in society, it is seen as established subjectively for the individual {present-day events}. Christian eschatological idealism is distinct from Preterism, Futurism and Historicism in that it does not see any of the prophecies (except in some cases the Second Coming, and Final Judgment) as being fulfilled in a literal, physical, earthly sense in the past, present or future. It views interpretation of the eschatological portions of the Bible in a historical or future-historical fashion as an erroneous understanding.

* Postmillennialism [American Protestantism XIX, active participation, Social Gospel; Постмилленаризм]. In Christian end-times theology (eschatology), postmillennialism, or postmillenarianism, is an interpretation of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation which sees Christ's second coming as occurring after (Latin post-) the "Millennium", a Golden Age in which Christian ethics prosper. The term subsumes several similar views of the end times, and it stands in contrast to premillennialism and, to a lesser extent, amillennialism (see Summary of Christian eschatological differences). Postmillennialism holds that Jesus Christ establishes {i.e. has (already) established} his kingdom on earth through his preaching and redemptive work in the first century and that he equips his church with the gospel, empowers her by the Spirit, and charges her with the Great Commission (Matt 28:19) to disciple all nations. Postmillennialism expects that eventually the vast majority of people living will be saved. Increasing gospel success will gradually produce a time in history prior to Christ's return in which faith, righteousness, peace, and prosperity will prevail in the affairs of men and of nations. After an extensive era of such conditions Jesus Christ will return visibly, bodily, and gloriously, to end history with the general resurrection and the final judgment after which the eternal order follows. Postmillennialism was a dominant theological belief among American Protestants who promoted reform movements in the 1850's abolitionism and the Social Gospel. Postmillennialism has become one of the key tenets of a movement known as Christian Reconstructionism. It has been criticized by 20th century religious conservatives as an attempt to immanentize the eschaton.  Постмилленаризм. Постмилленаризм или Постмиллениализм (от лат. mille – тысяча; префикс «пост» – после) – хиллегорическое учение, согласно которому Второе пришествие Христа состоится после тысячелетнего периода царствования праведников, либо уже наступившего, либо ожидаемого в будущем. Как правило, постмилленаризм подразумевает под тысячелетним периодом не ровно 1000 лет, но некий конечный протяженный период времени. В христианской теологии конца времен (эсхатологии) постмилленаризм является интерпретацией главы 20 главы Откровения Иоанна Богослова, в которой Второе пришествие Христа происходит после (лат. post -) "тысячелетия", Золотого века, в котором процветает Христианская этика. Постмилленаризм противопоставляется премилленаризму и, в меньшей степени, амилленаризму. Постмилленаризм был доминирующей теологической верой среди американских протестантов, которые продвигали реформаторские движения в 19-м и 20-м веках, такие как аболиционизм и социальное Евангелие. Постмилленаризм стал одним из ключевых постулатов движения, известного как христианский Реконструкционизм. Он был подвергнут критике религиозными консерваторами 20-го века как попытка имманентизировать эсхатон. // In political theory and theology, to immanentize the eschaton means trying to bring about the eschaton (the final, heaven-like stage of history) in the immanent world. In all these contexts, it means "trying to make that which belongs to the afterlife happen here and now (on Earth)." Theologically the belief is akin to postmillennialism as reflected in the Social Gospel of the 1880–1930 era, as well as Protestant reform movements during the Second Great Awakening in the 1830s and 1840s such as abolitionism. // The Social Gospel was a social movement within Protestantism that applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, lack of unionization, poor schools, and the dangers of war. It was most prominent in the early-20th-century United States and Canada. Theologically, the Social Gospelers sought to put into practice the Lord's Prayer (Matthew 6:10): "Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven". They typically were postmillennialist; that is, they believed the Second Coming could not happen until humankind rid itself of social evils by human effort. The Social Gospel was more popular among clergy than laity. Its leaders were predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the progressive movement, and most were theologically liberal, although a few were also conservative when it came to their views on social issues. Important leaders included Richard T. Ely, Josiah Strong, Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch. // Christian reconstructionism is a fundamentalist Reformed theonomic movement that developed under the ideas of Rousas Rushdoony, Greg Bahnsen and Gary North; it has had an important influence on the Christian Right in the United States. In keeping with the cultural mandate, reconstructionists advocate theonomy {divine law; ~theocracy} and the restoration of certain biblical laws said to have continuing applicability. // Theonomy, from theos (god) and nomos (law), is a hypothetical Christian form of government in which society is ruled by divine law. Theonomists hold that divine law, including the judicial laws of the Old Testament, should be observed by modern societies. Some critics see theonomy as a significant form of dominion theology, which they define as a type of theocracy. Theonomy posits that the biblical law is applicable to civil law, and theonomists propose biblical law as the standard by which the laws of nations may be measured, and to which they ought to be conformed. // Dominion theology. Dominion theology (also known as dominionism) is a group of Christian political ideologies that seek to institute a nation governed by Christians based on their understandings of biblical law. // Presuppositionalism is a school of Christian apologetics that believes the Christian faith is the only basis for rational thought. It presupposes that the Bible is divine revelation and attempts to expose flaws in other worldviews.

* Annihilationism [conditional immortality, destruction of the soul; Аннигиляционизм]. In Christianity, annihilationism (also known as extinctionism or destructionism) is the belief that those who are wicked will perish or cease to exist. It states that after the final judgment, all unsaved human beings, all fallen angels (all of the damned) and Satan himself will be totally destroyed so as to not exist, or that their consciousness will be extinguished rather than suffer everlasting torment in hell (often synonymized with the lake of fire). Annihilationism is directly related to the doctrine of conditional immortality, the idea that a human soul is not immortal unless it is given eternal life. Annihilationism asserts that God will eventually destroy the wicked, leaving only the righteous to live on in immortality. Some annihilationists (e.g. Seventh-day Adventists) believe God's love is scripturally described as an all-consuming fire and that sinful creatures cannot exist in God's presence. Thus those who do not repent of their sins are eternally destroyed because of the inherent incompatibility of sin with God's holy character. Seventh-day Adventists posit that living in eternal hell is a false doctrine of pagan origin, as the wicked will perish in the Lake of fire. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that there can be no punishment after death because the dead cease to exist. Annihilationism stands in contrast to both belief in eternal torture and suffering in the lake of fire and the belief that everyone will be saved (universal reconciliation or simply "universalism"). // В христианстве аннигиляционизм (также известный как экстинкционизм или же деструкционизм) это вера в то, что нечестивые погибнут или их больше не будет. В нем говорится, что после окончательное решение, все неспасенные люди, все пали ангелы (Все треклятый), и сам сатана будет полностью уничтожен, чтобы не существовать, или что их сознание будет потушено, а не страдать от вечных мучений в ад (часто синоним озеро огня). Аннигиляционизм - Annihilationism

* Second death [Spiritual death, lake of fire, destruction of the soul; Вторая смерть, Духовная смерть]. The second death is an eschatological concept in Judaism and Christianity, related to punishment after a first, natural death. When people are saved, they are not subject to the second death. They die only the first, earthly death. However, an unsaved person will experience two deaths: the first death and then after the resurrection the second death which is usually interpreted as everlasting torment or everlasting destruction. The term "second death" occurs four times in the New Testament, specifically in Revelation 2:11, 20:6, 20:14 and 21:8. According to Revelation 2:11 and 20:6, those who overcome the devil's tribulation, are holy and have part in the first resurrection will not experience the second death. Revelation 20:14 and 21:8 then identify the second death with the lake of fire. In Revelation 21:8 we read: "[A]s for the cowardly, the faithless, the polluted, the murderers, the fornicators, the sorcerers, the idolaters, and all liars, their place will be in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur, which is the second death." Christian universalists reject the notion of endless torment and therefore offer different interpretations. For instance, Gregory of Nyssa understood the second death as a cleansing, albeit painful process. Annihilationists and conditionalists, including all Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses, and others in many denominations, also oppose the idea of eternal suffering but believe that the second death is an actual second death and that the bodies and souls condemned to it after the final judgment will be utterly destroyed. // Вторая смерть упоминается в книге Откровение несколько раз и является синонимом озера огненного. Это – «смерть» в смысле отделения от Бога, дающего жизнь. Ее называют «второй», потому что она следует за физической смертью. Текст в Откровение 21:8 объясняет вторую смерть лучше всего: «Но трусам, неверным, подлым, убийцам, развратникам, колдунам, идолопоклонникам и всем лжецам – им место в озере с горящей серой. Это вторая смерть» (тут и далее – Новый Русский Перевод). Три других места в этой книге также говорят о второй смерти. Первое – Откровение 2:11: «У кого есть уши, пусть слышит, что Дух говорит церквам. Побеждающему вторая смерть не причинит вреда!». В этом стихе Иисус обещает, что верующие («победители» – см. 1 Иоанна 5:4) не попадут в озеро огненное. Вторая смерть предназначена исключительно для тех, кто отверг Христа. Верующие в Него не должны бояться этого места. Далее, в Откровение 20:6, говорится о второй смерти по отношению к будущему периоду, называемому Тысячелетним царством: «Блажен и свят тот, кто участвует в первом воскресении. Над ними вторая смерть уже не имеет власти. Они будут священниками Бога и Христа и будут царствовать с Ним тысячу лет». В этом стихе отмечены три важных факта. Во-первых, умирающие за веру в Иисуса во время периода скорби позже воскреснут, чтобы войти в Тысячелетнее царство и обитать с Ним. Во-вторых, эти мученики избегут озера огненного или второй смерти. В-третьих, они будут царствовать со Христом. Вторая смерть также упоминается в этом тексте: «Затем смерть и ад были брошены в огненное озеро. Огненное озеро – это вторая смерть. Чье имя не было найдено записанным в книге жизни, тот был брошен в огненное озеро» (Откровение 20:14-15). В конечном итоге даже смерть и ад будут брошены в озеро огненное. Кроме того, каждый человек, не найденный в книге жизни, окажется там. Это состояние будет окончательным и неизменным. Таким образом, вторая смерть подразумевает озеро огненное, где те, кто отделен от Бога своим грехом, будут находиться вечно. Слова об этом суде были записаны в Священном Писании как предупреждение и призыв к неверующим искать спасение, предлагаемое Иисусом Христом. Предстоящее наказание также должно побуждать верующих делиться своей верой. Существует огромная разница между вечной участью тех, кто знает Христа, и тех, кто Его не знает. GotQuestions - Что такое вторая смерть? // The concept of spiritual death has varying meanings in various uses and contexts. In Christian theology, spiritual death is separation from God caused by sin. Followers of Ascended Master movements such as the Theosophical Society, I AM Foundation, and Elizabeth Clare Prophet have a different definition of the second death, the final extinguishing of the identity of a soul deemed by God to be beyond redemption. In this theology, people are believed to continue to reincarnate for many lifetimes on Earth with one of two final outcomes: 1) Reunion with God in the ritual of the Ascension, like Jesus, or 2) Final judgment at the "court of the sacred fire," where the soul would be destroyed forever. The Unification Church teaches that spiritual death is the state of separation from God, but that it is not ever irreversible. Духовная смерть означает отлучение от Бога. В Священных Писаниях говорится о двух источниках духовной смерти. Первый источник – это Падение; второй – наше собственное непослушание. Духовную смерть можно преодолеть через Искупление Иисуса Христаи послушание Его Евангелию. Смерть духовная

* Rapture [Восхищение Церкви]. The rapture is an eschatological theological position held by some Christians, particularly within branches of American evangelicalism, consisting of an end-time event when all Christian believers who are alive, along with resurrected believers, will rise "in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air." The origin of the term extends from Paul the Apostle's First Epistle to the Thessalonians in the Bible, in which he uses the Greek word harpazo (Ancient Greek), meaning "to snatch away" or "to seize," and explains that believers in Jesus Christ will be snatched away from earth into the air. The idea of a rapture as it is currently defined is not found in historic Christianity, but is a relatively recent doctrine of Evangelical Protestantism. The term is most frequently used among Evangelical Protestant theologians in the United States. Rapture has also been used for a mystical union with God or for eternal life in Heaven. This view of eschatology is referred to as premillennial dispensationalism, which is a form of futurism. Differing viewpoints exist about the exact timing of the rapture and whether Christ's return will occur in one event or two. Pretribulationism distinguishes the rapture from the second coming of Jesus Christ mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew, 2 Thessalonians, and Revelation. This view holds that the rapture will precede the seven-year Tribulation, which will culminate in Christ's second coming and be followed by a thousand-year Messianic Kingdom. This theory grew out of the translations of the Bible that John Nelson Darby analyzed in 1833. Pretribulationism is the most widely held view among Christians believing in the rapture today, although this view is disputed within evangelicalism. Some assert a post-tribulational rapture. Most Christian denominations do not subscribe to rapture theology and have a different interpretation of the aerial gathering described in 1 Thessalonians 4. Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Presbyterians, United Methodists, the United Church of Christ, and most Reformed Christians do not generally use rapture as a specific theological term, nor do they generally subscribe to the premillennial dispensational views associated with its use. Instead these groups typically interpret rapture in the sense of the elect gathering with Christ in Heaven after his second coming and reject the idea that a large segment of humanity will be left behind on earth for an extended tribulation period after the events of 1 Thessalonians 4:17. Восхищение Церкви. Восхищение Церкви (др.-греч. ἅρπασμα, буквально «похищение», «захват», англ. Rapture) — термин в христианской эсхатологии, распространённый в протестантской среде (особенно среди баптистских, пятидесятнических и других церквей, ощутивших влияние диспенсационализма). Под «восхищением» подразумевают вознесение Церкви для её встречи с Иисусом Христом перед Его Вторым пришествием. Значительная часть протестантов считает, что Восхищение Церкви и Второе пришествие Иисуса Христа для суда над миром — два разных события, разделённые во времени. Термин «восхищение» взят из Синодального перевода Библии, из слов апостола Павла, адресованных христианской церкви в Фессалониках: "Потом мы, оставшиеся в живых, вместе с ними восхищены будем на облаках в сретение Господу на воздухе, и так всегда с Господом будем" — 1Фес. 4:17. Rapture.

* The Great Tribulation [Великая скорбь]. In Christian eschatology, the Great Tribulation is a period mentioned by Jesus in the Olivet Discourse as a sign that would occur in the time of the end. The Olivet Discourse or Olivet prophecy is a biblical passage found in the Synoptic Gospels in Matthew 24 and 25, Mark 13, and Luke 21. It is also known as the Little Apocalypse because it includes the use of apocalyptic language, and it includes Jesus' warning to his followers that they will suffer tribulation and persecution before the ultimate triumph of the Kingdom of God. In the futurist view of Christian eschatology, the Tribulation is a relatively short period of time where everyone will experience worldwide hardships, disasters, famine, war, pain, and suffering, which will affect all of creation, and precede judgement of the wicked people of the Earth when the Second Coming takes place. Some pretribulationists believe that those who choose to follow God will be raptured before the tribulation, and thus escape it. On the other hand, some posttribulationists (Christians who believe the rapture is synonymous with the resurrection that takes place after the Tribulation) believe Christians must endure the Tribulation as a test of their faith. According to dispensationalists who hold the futurist view, the Tribulation is thought to occur before the Second Coming of Jesus and during the End Times. In this view, the Tribulation will last seven prophetic Hebrew years (lasting 360 days each) in all but the Great Tribulation will be the second half of the Tribulation period (see Matt 24:15 and Matt 24:21 showing the Great Tribulation is after the Abomination of Desolation, which marks the midpoint of the Tribulation). In this view, this seven-year period is considered to be the final week of Daniel's Prophecy of Seventy Weeks, found in Daniel chapter 9. Among Futurists there are differing views about what will happen to Christians during the Tribulation. Pretribulationists believe that all righteous Christians (dead and alive) will be taken bodily up to Heaven (called the rapture) before the Tribulation begins. Prewrath Tribulationists believe the rapture will occur during the Tribulation, halfway through or after, but before the seven bowls of the wrath of God. Midtribulationists believe that the rapture will occur halfway through the Tribulation, but before the worst part of it occurs. The seven-year period is divided into halves—the "beginning of sorrows" and the "Great Tribulation". Posttribulationists believe that Christians will not be taken up into Heaven for eternity, but will be received or gathered in the air by Christ, to descend together to establish the Kingdom of God on earth at the end of the Tribulation. In the Preterist view, the Tribulation took place in the past when Roman legions destroyed Jerusalem and its temple in AD 70 during the end stages of the First Jewish–Roman War, and it only affected the Jewish people rather than all mankind.  Christian preterists believe that the Tribulation was a divine judgment visited upon the Jews for their sins, including rejection of Jesus as the promised Messiah. It occurred entirely in the past, around 70 AD when the armed forces of the Roman Empire destroyed Jerusalem and its temple.  A preterist discussion of the Tribulation has its focus on the Gospels, in particular the prophetic passages in Matthew 24, Mark 13 and Luke 21, rather than on the Apocalypse or Book of Revelation. (Preterists apply much of the symbolism in the Revelation to Rome, the Cæsars, and their persecution of Christians, rather than to the Tribulation upon the Jews.) The Historicist view applies Tribulation to the period known as "persecution of the saints" (Daniel 7, Revelation 13). This is believed to have begun with the period after the "falling away{>>}" when papal Rome came to power for 1260 years from 538 to 1798 (using the day-year principle). They believe that the Tribulation is not a future event, but it intensifies right at the end to a time such as never before. Historicists are prone to see prophecy fulfilled down through the centuries and rather than a single Antichrist to rule the earth during a future Tribulation period, Martin Luther, John Calvin and the other Protestant Reformers saw the Antichrist as fulfilled in the papacy. The reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin and others saw the papacy's claim of temporal power over all secular governments and the autocratic character of the papal office as the falling away from the original faith founded by Jesus and the apostles, and challenged papal authority as it had deviated from scripture with its tradition and was a corruption from the early church. Similarly, some modern historicists see the Tribulation on the Jews as beginning in 70 AD and continuing for centuries, covering the same time span as "the times of the Gentiles" during which "Jerusalem shall be trodden down by the Gentiles." (Luke 21:24) This view would have it encompass not only the death of a million Jews at the hands of the Roman legions, but also the death of six million Jews in the Holocaust. Idealism believes that the "great tribulation" or "great affliction" corresponds to the ordeal that is endured as a result of Satan’s expulsion from heaven. Satan is thrown down to earth following Christ's exaltation (Rev. 12:1-17); the "great wrath" (Rev. 12:12) that Satan afflicts on God’s people corresponds to the great tribulation mentioned in Rev. 7:14b. This period of affliction continues throughout the present until Christ defeats Satan at his second coming or Parousia. The great tribulation is a symbolic period of three and a half years that represents the "in-between times" between Christ's ascension and his return at the end of time to defeat evil. // Великая скорбь. Вели́кая скорбь — понятие в христианской эсхатологии, означающее время сильнейшего горя и жестоких страданий человечества. Великая скорбь описана как в «апокалиптических» главах Евангелий (Мф. 24:1–51, Мк. 13:1–37), так и в книге Откровение (Откр. 2:22, Откр. 7:14).

* Dispensationalism [spiritual eras, supersessionism; Диспенсационализм]. Dispensationalism is a religious interpretive system and metanarrative for the Bible. It considers biblical history as divided by God into dispensations, defined periods or ages to which God has allotted distinctive administrative principles. According to dispensationalism, each age of God's plan is thus administered in a certain way, and humanity is held responsible as a steward during that time. Dispensationalists' presuppositions start with the inductive reasoning that biblical history has a particular discontinuity in the way God reacts to humanity in the unfolding of their, sometimes supposed, free wills. Dispensationalism stands in contrast to the traditional system of covenant theology used in biblical interpretation. Dispensationalists are premillennialists who affirm a future, literal 1,000-year reign of Jesus Christ, Revelation 20:6, which merges with and continues on to the eternal state in the "new heavens and the new earth" (Revelation 21). They claim that the millennial kingdom will be theocratic in nature and not mainly soteriological, as it is considered by George Eldon Ladd and others with a non-dispensational form of premillennialism. The vast majority of dispensationalists profess a pretribulation rapture, with small minorities professing to either a mid-tribulation, or post-tribulation rapture. Dispensationalists profess a definite distinction between Israel and the Christian Church. For dispensationalists, Israel is an ethnic nation consisting of Hebrews (Israelites), beginning with Abraham and continuing in existence to the present. The Church, on the other hand, consists of all saved individuals in this present dispensation—i.e., from the "birth of the Church" in Acts until the time of the rapture. According to progressive dispensationalism in contrast to the older forms, the distinction between Israel and the Church is not mutually exclusive, as there is a recognized overlap between the two. The overlap consists of Jewish Christians such as Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle, who were ethnically Jewish and also had faith in Jesus. Dispensations. The number of dispensations vary typically from three to eight. The typical seven-dispensation scheme is as follows:  1) Innocence – Adam under probation prior to the Fall. Ends with expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Some refer to this period as the Adamic period or the dispensation of the Adamic covenant or Adamic law.  2) Conscience – From the Fall to the Great Flood. Ends with the worldwide deluge. 3) Human Government – After the Great Flood, humanity is responsible to enact the death penalty. Ends with the dispersion at the Tower of Babel. Some use the term Noahide law in reference to this period of dispensation. 4) Promise – From Abraham to Moses. Ends with the refusal to enter Canaan and the 40 years of unbelief in the wilderness. Some use the terms Abrahamic law or Abrahamic covenant in reference to this period of dispensation. 5) Law – From Moses to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Ends with the scattering of Israel in AD70. Some use the term Mosaic law in reference to this period of dispensation. 6) Grace – From the cross to the rapture of the church. 7) The rapture is followed by the wrath of God constituting the Great Tribulation. Some use the term Age of Grace or the Church Age for this dispensation. 8) Millennial Kingdom – A 1000 year reign of Christ on earth centered in Jerusalem, ending with God's judgment on the final rebellion. // Ladd was a notable, modern proponent of Historic Premillennialism, and often criticized dispensationalist views. This was notable during this period, as dispensationalism was by far the most widely held view among evangelicals during the mid-twentieth century. His writings regarding the Kingdom of God (especially his view of inaugurated eschatology) have become a cornerstone of Kingdom theology. Диспенсационализм. Диспенсационали́зм (англ. dispensation — распределение, период) — совокупность теологических представлений в христианстве, рассматривающих исторический процесс как последовательное распределение божественного Откровения по периодам, каждому из которых соответствует особый тип договорных отношений человечества с Богом.  Не имея базовых структур в виде каких-то масштабных религиозных организаций, диспенсационализм распространяется главным образом как теологическая традиция, сохраняя влияние на разные протестантские течения.

* Church of John [The Secret Church, esoteric, John the "Gnostic" Apostle; Тайная церковь Иоанна ??]. You know without doubt, dear Unknown Friend, that many ... in France, Germany, England, and elsewhere, promulgate the doctrine of the so-called “two churches”: the church of Peter and the church of John, or of “two epochs” — the epoch of Peter and the epoch of John. You know also that this doctrine teaches the end — more or less at hand — of the church of Peter, or above all the papacy which is its visible symbol, and that the spirit of John, disciple loved by the Master, he who leaned on his breast and heard the beating of his heart, will replace it. In this way it teaches that the “exoteric” church of Peter will make way for the “esoteric” church of John, which will be that of perfect freedom. In this way Valentin Tomberg, the author of Meditations on the Tarot {!!}, introduces the concept of a secret church, associated with John, that has existed within and alongside the familiar outer institutions. Some authors, including Eliphas Levi, say there was even a secret Johannine doctrine carried on first by John’s circle of disciples and later in secret societies such as the Templars. Although the notion of a secret church of John is not to be taken literally as a conspiracy theorist might, it does have some truth to it. To understand it, we might return to a small detail mentioned in chapter 6. John Scotus Eriugena tells us that of the two disciples who rushed to the empty tomb of Christ, Peter symbolizes faith and John, knowledge {gnosis}. The church of Peter is the outer church. Faith holds the keys to this kingdom. But there is another dimension of Christianity as well, for an era to come. The risen Christ says to Peter of the beloved disciple (John), “If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee?” (John 2 1 :22). The Gospel seems to be suggesting that in an era long after its own time, the stream of knowledge associated with John will come into its own. Richard Smoley - Inner Christianity // De Lubac is keen to point out, once more, that nothing in Eriugena's theory describes this future life as a reality within time. Patrick X Gardner - Modern Pentecost: Henri de Lubac on Atheism and the Spiritual Posterity of Joachim of Fiore Eriugena produced a bold and original philosophical-theological synthesis that led some interpreters to charge him with pantheism, others with rationalism. Edmund J. Fortman - The Triune God: A Historical Study of the Doctrine of the Trinity // See Апокриф Иоанна [Apocryphon of John] (II).

* HISTORY

* The False Christ of Bourges [hermit, prophet, Messiah, Christ; Лжехрист из Бурже] (VI). A common modern conception about Medieval times is that the Catholic Church was in absolute control of the hearts and minds of European Christendom, and there is no doubt that it was very powerful. (...) Not being stupid, the medieval masses could hardly help but notice the cruelty and injustice of the temporal world, and the fact that the Church was unable to protect them from such woes as epidemics or oppressive masters. (...) Consequently, resentment against the Church and the clergy could be both murderously intense, and widespread, especially in times of crisis. A large number of medieval messiahs profited from that resentment, offering the miserable peasantry a focus for both their anger and their hopes. Not only are crisis times a seller’s market for millenarian hopes, but messianic pretenders in this period could draw upon the ready-made apocalyptic script deeply embedded in the zeitgeist. Scores of messiahs and millenarian movements are documented in the roughly thousand years of the medieval period, with some fascinating general patterns in how they operated, and how the populace responded. (...) Gregory’s example of a false Christ is a “man of Bourges,” who went into the forest one day to cut wood, and was surrounded by a swarm of flies which caused him to lose his mind.  It is an odd and intriguing detail: did he see a real swarm of flies, or was he having the sort of hallucination that can accompany high fevers or cerebral events? In any case, he spent the next couple of years living as a crazy hermit in the wilderness, wearing animal skins, and doing a whole lot of praying.  When he emerged, he emerged as a Messiah, in fact as Christ himself, gifted with the powers of prophecy and healing.  He soon built up a following, starting with a woman appropriately named Mary, who passed as his sister and was also divine. Interestingly, this messiah did not seem to be interested in accumulating personal wealth—only adulation. His followers, who may have numbered up to 3000 by the end, included not just the poor and dispossessed, but even some priests who believed in his divine nature because of his miraculous healings. The self-proclaimed Christ led his growing army through the countryside of Gaul, accepting gifts of gold and fine garments which he would distribute to the poor, and engaging in public rituals where both he and Mary would be worshipped as divine. His following, not unpredictably, evolved into an army of bandits, robbing travelers they met on the way—though the Messiah was said to distribute all the booty to the poor—and threatening violence to bishops and towns who did not acknowledge the Messiah’s divinity. Naturally, this lawlessness could not be permitted to continue. By subterfuge, the Bishop Aurilius of Puy managed to defeat the Messiah as his army gathered to attack the town, announced by naked, capering messengers. One of the bishop’s own messengers pretended to prostrate himself before the Messiah, and instead caught him around the knees, pulled out a sword, and cut the unfortunate Christ to pieces. Mary was captured alive, however, and tortured until she confessed to the demonic sources of the Messiah’s power. Their followers were allowed to disperse, but the messiah’s downfall did not affect their faith. As Norman Cohn puts it in his classic work In Pursuit of the Millennium, “Those who had believed in him continued to do so; to their dying day they maintained that he was indeed Christ and that the woman Mary, too, was a divine being.” The chronicler concluded that this Christ was a kind of antichrist, in league with the devil; he went on to say that there were many such pretenders wandering the countryside, whom he also equated with the “false prophets” who would infest the earth in the end times. Nameless and faceless though he was, this unfortunate Christ is pretty much a template for your basic common-or-garden wandering messiah. Classic features include: 1) The messiah, previously unremarkable, spends a period in the wilderness and emerges with a holy or even divine nature. Frequently, the period in the wilderness includes illness and/or madness. 2) His claim of holiness is validated by miracles of prophecy and especially of healing. 3) He rises in desperate times, and draws his following mostly, but not exclusively, from the poor and desperate. 4) He theoretically robs the rich to give to the poor; in practice, he takes from unbelievers to give to the faithful, a form of declaring unbelievers “fair game.” 5) His following becomes increasingly militarized, and enters into escalating conflict with established church and secular authorities. 6) Authorities respond by destroying him and his closest associates, and a proportion of his following. 7) The official verdict judges him to be a false prophet or antichrist, while surviving followers continue to believe and keep the faith. REBECCA BRADLEY - FRIDAY MESSIAH: THE CHRIST OF BOURGES // Примечательно также, что среди сторонников лжепророков обычно оказывались и клирики, священники, а иногда и епископы92. Идейное содержание подобных выступлений носит эклектический характер. С хилиазмом сочетались некоторые языческие представления93. В зачаточной форме обнаруживается стремление принизить роль церковной организации и оспаривать некоторые догмы католицизма. Еще в 30-е годы VIII в. Бонифаций пресек деятельность некоего Эремвульфа, «схизматика, впавшего в еретическое безумие», и освободил народ, как сообщает Вилибальд, от его «превратного и языческого лжеучения»94. Отрицание Адельбертом паломничества в Рим было умалением значения папства. Клемент, как уже отмечалось выше, подвергал сомнению авторитет отцов церкви и постановлений церковных соборов и высказывал еретические взгляды по поводу предопределения. || 92 Лжехриста из Бурже поддерживали не только простые люди, по и священники (Greg. Turon. Op. cit., X, 25: ...non solum rusticiores, verum etiam sacerdotes ecclesiastici). Адельберту помогли получить епископский сан некие «неученые епископы» (episcopos indoctos). См.: Bonifatius. Epist. 59. К нему присоединился епископ Годальсадий (Ibid.). Пророчица Теота действовала по наущению какого-то священника. См.: Annales Fuldenses, а. 847. 93 Сооружение крестов и святилищ на полях и у источников – действия, отражающие влияние языческих обычаев. См.: Hauck A. Op. cit., S. 556. А. Р. Корсунский - РЕЛИГИОЗНЫЙ ПРОТЕСТ В ЭПОХУ РАННЕГО СРЕДНЕВЕКОВЬЯ В ЗАПАДНОЙ ЕВРОПЕ // Augustine’s allegorical millennialism became the official doctrine of the church, and apocalypticism went underground. After Augustine there was a radical split in millennial discourse. On the one hand, the texts all formally endorse Augustine’s position. On the other, the continued use of AM II and eventually the practice of “counting down” to the year 6000 indicates that the same “debates” between apocalyptic prophets of the millennium and concerned clergy continued unabated. Gregory of Tours gives a particularly striking example in his treatment of the so-called False Christ of Bourges, a peasant who, in the aftermath of a terrible plague in AD 591, presented himself as Christ and was widely greeted by enthusiastic crowds. Despite his assassination by agents of the bishop of Clermont and the tortured admissions of the woman who had traveled with him as Mary, his disciples continued to spread word of him throughout Gaul. Not surprisingly, Gregory took refuge in the numbers, assuaging the fears of “those who despair at the coming end of the world” by proclaiming in his History of Franks that, if this man came in 5790, then clearly he is a “false Christ.” Similar “false” prophets appeared throughout the centuries to be met with a similar counterargument that the year 6000 was still some distance in the future. Britannica - Medieval and Reformation millennialism

* Thiota [prophetess; Фиота ??] (fl 847). Thiota was a heretical Christian prophetess of the ninth century. She was originally from Alemannia (then part of East Francia), and in 847 she began prophesying that the world would end that year. Her story is known from the Annales Fuldenses which record that she disturbed the diocese of Bishop Salomon, that is, the Diocese of Constance, before arriving in Mainz. A large number of men and women were persuaded by her "presumption" as well as even some clerics. In fear, many gave her gifts and sought prayers. Finally, the bishops of Gallia Belgica ordered her to attend a synod in St Alban's church in Mainz. She was eventually forced to confess that she had only made up her predictions at the urging of a priest and for lucrative gain. She was publicly flogged and stripped of her ministry, which the Fuldensian annalist says she had taken up "unreasonably ... against the customs of the church." Shamed, she ceased to prophesy thereafter.

* Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor [conversion of Slavs ??; Оттон III] (980-1002). Otto III was Holy Roman Emperor from 996 until his early death in 1002. A member of the Ottonian dynasty {a Saxon dynasty of German monarchs (919–1024)}, Otto III was the only son of the Emperor Otto II and his wife Theophanu. Otto III was crowned as King of Germany in 983 at the age of three, shortly after his father's death in Southern Italy while campaigning against the Byzantine Empire and the Emirate of Sicily. Though the nominal ruler of Germany, Otto III's minor status ensured his various regents held power over the Empire. (...) From the beginning of his reign, Otto III faced opposition from the Slavs along the eastern frontier. Following the death of his father in 983, the Slavs rebelled against imperial control, forcing the Empire to abandon its territories east of the Elbe river. Otto III fought to regain the Empire's lost territories throughout his reign with only limited success. While in the east, Otto III strengthened the Empire's relations with Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary. Through his affairs in Eastern Europe in 1000, he was able to extend the influence of Christianity by supporting mission work in Poland {i.e. converting pagans (??)} and through the crowning of Stephen I as the first Christian king of Hungary. Оттон III. Оттон III (нем. и лат. Otto III; июнь или июль 980 — 23 или 24 января 1002, замок Патерно около Витербо, Италия), прозванный «Чудо мира» (лат. Mirabilia mundi) — германский король и император Священной Римской империи, сын Оттона II Рыжего и византийской принцессы Феофано, родственницы императора Иоанна I Цимисхия. Как правителя Оттона не любили ни в Германии, ни в Италии; в 1001 году в Риме вспыхнул мятеж, в какой-то момент его дворец был осаждён толпой римлян, после чего Оттон покинул город и безуспешно пытался восстановить свою власть хотя бы в столице. Его мечты о реставрации империи в полном её масштабе потерпели крах. В этот период он был обручён с дочерью византийского императора Константина VIII Зоей, которая выехала в Италию для бракосочетания, но не успела достигнуть её берегов до смерти Оттона. // During the disturbed tenth century in Western Europe, royal power held its ground and extended its authority only in Germany-whence the Emperor Otto III sallied into Italy with the purpose of reviving Roman classical tradition and combining it with the dream of a Christian Commonwealth under imperial aegis. J.B. Morrall - Otto III: An Imperial Ideal // There has been much controversy over the role of apocalyptic thought at the court of Otto III of Germany (983–1002). This is in no small part a product of modern scholarship discussing the subject almost exclusively with reference to the so-called ‘terrors of the year 1000’, the result being highly polarised ‘all or nothing’ arguments, which run the risk of underestimating both the complexity and dynamism of eschatological expectation in this period. In contrast, the following paper argues that apocalyptic thought played an important part in politics under Otto III, but one which cannot be explained by the proximity of the first millennium alone. Cambridge University Press - EMPEROR OTTO III AND THE END OF TIME

* Peace and Truce of God [Pax Dei, Treuga Dei, peace movement; Божий мир, Божье перемирие] (X/XI). The Peace and Truce of God (Latin: Pax et treuga Dei; German: Gottesfrieden; French: Paix et Trêve de Dieu; Catalan: Pau i Treva de Déu) was a movement in the Middle Ages led by the Catholic Church and the first mass peace movement in history. The goal of both the Pax Dei and the Treuga Dei was to limit the violence of feuding endemic to the western half of the former Carolingian Empire – following its collapse in the middle of the 9th century – using the threat of spiritual sanctions. The eastern half of the former Carolingian Empire did not experience the same collapse of central authority, and neither did England. The Peace of God was first proclaimed in 989, at the Council of Charroux. It sought to protect ecclesiastical property, agricultural resources and unarmed clerics. The Truce of God, first proclaimed in 1027 at the Council of Toulouges, attempted to limit the days of the week and times of year that the nobility engaged in violence. The movement survived in some form until the thirteenth century. Other strategies to deal with the problem of violence in the western half of the former Carolingian Empire include Chivalry and the Crusades. Georges Duby summarized the widening social repercussions of Pax Dei: "The Peace and Truce of God, by attaching sacred significance to privacy, helped create a space in which communal gatherings could take place and thus encouraged the reconstitution of public space at the village level ... In the eleventh and twelfth centuries many a village grew up in the shadow of the church, in the zone of immunity where violence was prohibited under peace regulations." (...) The Peace and Truce of God movement was one of the ways that the Church attempted to civilize the feudal structures of society through non-violent means. After the collapse of the Carolingian empire in the ninth century, France had degenerated into many small counties and lordships, in which local lords and knights frequently fought each other for control. The West Frankish nobility capitalized on the accession of the Carolingian throne and ushered in the Capetian dynasty {a.o. House of France} and further altered French, and by extension, European medieval society. One of the critical points of this dynastic shift is what Guy Bois characterizes "the mutation of the year 1000," wherein the period is known for the inexorable link between chaos and creativity. The chaos of the period is attributed to the issue of violent feuding, with the castellans and their milites working towards consolidated power and freedom from the overarching political structure of the Carolingian empire. Frederick S. Paxton argues that the political and cultural landscape of the period highlights some of the prevailing cultural anxieties and issues surrounding the millennium, particularly "unparalleled disorder in governmental, legal, and social institutions" and Carolingian society was faced with a "king unable and the nobility unwilling to act [causing] the French people, imbued with a 'national spirit' {and the Church, (??)} peculiarly creative in the fight against political and social ills, turned to spiritual sanctions as the only available means to limit violence." (...) Children and women (virgins and widows) were added to the early protections. The Pax Dei prohibited nobles from invading churches, from beating the defenseless, from burning houses, and so on. A synod of 1033 added merchants and their goods to the protected list. Significantly, the Peace of God movement began in Aquitaine, Burgundy and Languedoc, areas where central authority had most completely fragmented. // Божье перемирие.  Божье перемирие - запрет на ведение воен. действий в определенные дни. Движение за Б.п. возникло во Франции в XI в., возглавлялось епископатом; оно демонстрировало рост авторитета церкви в обществе. В условиях беспрерывных феод, войн имело широкую поддержку среди мирян. Решения о Б.п. принимались церковными соборами (напр., соборами 1027 г. в Тулуж-Русийоне, в 1083 г. в Кёльне, в 1130 г. в Клермон-Ферране, в 1131 г. в Реймсе, на III Латеранском соборе 1179 г. и т.д.). Вначале запрет на воен. действия был наложен только на воскресенье, затем распространен на период от вечера каждой среды до утра понедельника. Кроме того, ведение войн запрещалось на время от начала Великого поста до Фомина воскресенья, Рождественского поста и на Рождество. В частности, Кёльнский собор 1083 г. установил такие дни: «от первого дня Рождественского поста до Крещения и от начала третьего воскресенья перед Великим постом до восьмого дня после Троицы», в каждое воскресенье, пятницу и субботу, во все дни канонически определенных постов и праздников. Нарушителям Б.п., по постановлениям соборов, угрожало отлучение от церкви. В условиях феод, раздробленности в Зап. Европе движение за Б.п. существенной роли не сыграло. Средневековый мир в терминах, именах и названиях - Божье перемирие // Божий мир. Божий мир - (лат. pax Dei), особая форма «мира», ограничения открытого насилия, в серии трудно сводимых к общему определению вариантов получившая распространение в ряде регионов Западной Европы в кон. Х-ХШ вв. В узком значении понятия, Б.ий М. - лишь его древнейшие формы, до распространения в 40-х гг. XI в. treuga Dei, божьего перемирия. (...) Инициатива принадлежала высшему клиру Аквитании, который стремился положить предел беспорядкам в регионе. Первой ассамблеей Б.его М.а, вероятно, можно считать мир в Лапраде. Ок. 975 г. епископ Ле-Пюи Ги Анжуйский собрал рыцарей и крестьян своего диоцеза на лугу св. Германа и попросил их принести клятву в том, что они станут сохранять мир, не будут чинить насилий церкви и бедным, а похищенное возвратят. Когда те отказались, епископ распорядился ночью подтянуть войска своих племянников, графов Бриуда и Жеводана, и утром силой принудил паству поклясться и дать заложников. В последующую четверть века аквитанские пастыри продолжают созывать массовые сходы христиан и временами используют святые реликвии как инструмент давления на потенциальных нарушителей мира. Распоряжения первых соборов Б.его М.а очень просты. Так, собор в Шарру (Пуату, 989 г.), древнейший, от которого сохранились каноны, грозит отлучением трем категориям насильников: если кто ворвется в церковь и силой возьмет что-либо; если кто избивает безоружных клириков; если кто грабит «крестьян и других бедных». Словарь средневековой культуры - божий мир

* Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah [Jerusalem, attacks on Christians and Jews; Аль-Хаким Биамриллах] (985-1021). Abū ʿAlī Manṣūr, better known by his regnal name al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (Arabic: literally "The Ruler by the Order of God"), was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996–1021). Al-Hakim is an important figure in a number of Shia Ismaili religions, such as the world's 15 million Nizaris and 1-2 million Musta’lis, in addition to the 2 million Druze of the Levant whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018. Histories of al-Hakim can prove controversial, as diverse views of his life and legacy exist. In Western literature he has been referred to as the "Mad Caliph". This title is largely due to his erratic and oppressive behavior concerning religious minorities under his command, as historian Hunt Janin relates: al-Hakim "was known as the 'Mad Caliph' because of his many cruelties and eccentricities". Historian Michael Bonner points out that the term is also used due to the dramatic difference between al-Hakim and his predecessors and his successors while also pointing out such persecution is an extreme rarity in Islam during this era. "In his capital of Cairo, this unbalanced (and, in the view of most, mad) caliph raged against the Christians in particular...On the whole such episodes remained exceptional, like the episodes of forced conversion to Islam." Historian Michael Foss also notes this contrast "For more than three hundred and fifty years, from the time when the Caliph Omar made a treaty with the Patriarch Sophronius until 1009, when mad al-Hakim began attacks on Christians and Jews, the city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land were open to the West, with an easy welcome and the way there was no more dangerous than a journey from Paris to Rome....Soon [after al-Hakim] the panic was over. In 1037 al-Mustansir came to an amicable agreement with Emperor Michael IV." The claim that al-Hakim was mad and the version of events around him is disputed as mere propaganda by some scholars, such as Willi Frischaue, who states: "His enemies called him the 'Mad Caliph' but he enhanced Cairo's reputation as a centre of civilization."

* Cluniac Reforms [monastic reform; Benedictine Reform; Клюнийская реформа] (IX). The Cluniac Reforms (also called the Benedictine Reform) were a series of changes within medieval monasticism of the Western Church focused on restoring the traditional monastic life, encouraging art, and caring for the poor. The movement began within the Benedictine order at Cluny Abbey, founded in 910 by William I, Duke of Aquitaine (875–918). The reforms were largely carried out by Saint Odo (c. 878 – 942) and spread throughout France (Burgundy, Provence, Auvergne, Poitou), into England (the English Benedictine Reform), and through much of Italy and Spain. Background. In the early 10th century, Western monasticism, which had flourished several centuries earlier with St Benedict of Nursia, was experiencing a severe decline due to unstable political and social conditions resulting from the nearly continuous Viking raids, widespread poverty and, especially, the dependence of abbeys on the local nobles who controlled all that belonged to the territories under their jurisdiction.  The impetus for the reforms lay in abuses thought to be a result of secular interference in the monasteries and of the Church's tight integration with the feudal and manorial systems. Since a Benedictine monastery required land, it needed the patronage of a local lord. However, the lord would often demand rights and assert prerogatives that interfered with the operation of the monastery. Patrons normally retained a proprietary interest and expected to install their kinsmen as abbots. Local aristocrats often established churches, monasteries, and convents that they then considered as family property, taking revenues from them, and leaving the monks that remained subsisting in poverty. Some monasteries were established by feudal lords with the intention of retiring there at some point. The Benedictine Rule, in these monasteries, was modified to schedule matins when it would not interrupt sleep and expanded the vegetarian diet. Monks in these houses wore richer, warmer clothing and were free to disregard the rules pertaining to fasting. The Cluny reform was an attempt to remedy these practices in the hope that a more independent abbot would better enforce the Rule of Saint Benedict.

* Rodulfus Glaber [Глабер, Рауль] (985–1047). Rodulfus or Ralph Glaber (which means "the Smooth" or "the Bald") was an 11th century French monk and chronicler. Glaber's writings often sympathized with proponents of church reform of that age, including Henry II, Henry III, and Robert II of France, while criticizing others like Conrad II, and Pope Benedict IX.

* Peter the Hermit [Cucupeter, Peter of Amiens, People's Crusade; Пётр Амьенский, Пётр Пустынник] (c 1050-????). Peter the Hermit (also known as Cucupeter, Little Peter or Peter of Amiens) was a priest of Amiens and a key figure during the First Crusade. According to Anna Comnena, Peter had to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before 1096 , but was prevented by the Seljuk Turks from reaching his goal and was reportedly mistreated. This was used to preach inflammatory statements about the Turks toward upset Christians. However, doubts remain whether he ever made such a journey. Sources differ as to whether he was present at Pope Urban II's famous Council of Clermont in 1095. It is certain that he was one of the preachers of the crusade in France afterward, and his own experience may have helped to give fire to the Crusading cause. Tradition in Huy holds that he was there when the crusade was announced and he began his preaching at once. He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist, and the vast majority of sources and historians agree that thousands of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding. Jonathan Riley-Smith has proposed that the People's Crusade also included well-armed soldiers and nobles. This part of the crusade was also known as the crusade of the "paupers", a term which in the Middle Ages indicated a status as impoverished or mendicant wards of the Church. Peter organized and guided the paupers as a spiritually purified and holy group of pilgrims who would, supposedly, be protected by the Holy Ghost. (A list of known participants in Peter's army can be found at The Digital Humanities Institute.) Before Peter went on his crusade he received permission from Patriarch Simeon II of Jerusalem. Peter was able to recruit from England, Lorraine, France, and Flanders. Peter the Hermit arrived in Cologne, Germany, on Holy Saturday, the 12th of April in 1096. In the spring of 1096 Peter was one of the prominent crusader leaders involved in the Rhineland massacres against the Jews. Peter and his followers participated in the torture and slaughter of Jews in Lorraine, Cologne, and Mainz {?? >>}. In Mainz, Peter's followers killed a large group of Jews that had been granted refuge by a local bishop. (...) There is also a strong and old tradition that Peter the Hermit was the first to introduce the use of the Rosary. It follows that he began this tradition in about 1090. If this is the case and if he had also been on a previous pilgrimage to Jerusalem, it is possible that he derived this practice from similar Islamic practices. Пётр Амьенский. Пётр Амьенский (лат. Petrus Ambianensis, он же Пётр Пустынник, лат. Petrus Heremita), — аскет, которому приписывалась организация первого крестового похода. // One might think that after leading thousands of untrained civilians prematurely into battle, and then deserting his comrades at Antioch, that Peter the Hermit would have been left in disgrace for the rest of his days. Such is not the case. After a miraculous victory over the Kerbogha at Antioch, the Crusader armies once again faced extreme difficulty when they came to Jerusalem. Infighting and internal disagreement kept the Crusaders from coming up with a plan sufficient to take Jerusalem. It was on July 6, 1099, Peter Desiderius speaking on behalf of the now dead papal legate, Adhemar, rebuked the armies and called them to take Jerusalem (Madden, 33). He ordered a fast, and a procession around Jerusalem that would lead to success in battle in nine short days. It was in this moment that Peter the Hermit would once again take his place as an inspirational preacher. “The procession ended on the Mount of Olives, where Peter the Hermit (once again in good graces) preached an impassioned sermon” (Stark, 157). JEREMY LUNDMARK - PETER THE HERMIT: PREACHING THE CRUSADES // For instance, when Peter the Hermit and his mob of Crusaders passed through these towns and threatened the Jewish population, they had been amenable to bribes and largely left the Jews free from harassment. (Emicho)

* People's Crusade [Peter the Hermit, massacre of Jews; Крестьянский крестовый поход] (1096). The People's Crusade was the first, largest, and best documented of the popular crusades. It lasted roughly six months from April to October 1096, and is categorized either as a prelude to the First Crusade, or, as a distinct part of the First Crusade to be distinguished from the "Princes' Crusade" which was much better organized, better armed, and better funded. It is also known as the Peasants' Crusade, Paupers' Crusade or the Popular Crusade as it was not part of the official Catholic Church-organised expeditions that came later. Led primarily by Peter the Hermit with forces of Walter Sans Avoir, the untrained peasant army was destroyed by the forces of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan at the Battle of Civetot in northwestern Anatolia. Historically, there has been much debate over whether Peter was the real initiator of the Crusade as opposed to Pope Urban II. The expedition's independence has been used by some historians such as Heinrich Hagenmeyer to prove this. A charismatic monk and powerful orator named Peter the Hermit of Amiens was the spiritual leader of the movement. He was known for riding a donkey and dressing in simple clothing. He had vigorously preached the crusade throughout northern France and Flanders. He claimed to have been appointed to preach by Christ himself (and supposedly had a divine letter to prove it), and it is likely that some of his followers thought he, not Urban, was the true originator of the crusading idea. It is often believed that Peter's army was a band of illiterate, incompetent peasants who had no idea where they were going, and who believed that every city of any size they encountered on their way was Jerusalem itself; this may have been true for some, but the long tradition of pilgrimages to Jerusalem ensured that the location and distance of the city were well known. Massacre of Jews in Central Europe. In the late spring and summer of 1096, crusaders destroyed most of the Jewish communities along the Rhine in a series of unprecedentedly large pogroms in France and Germany in which thousands of Jews were massacred, driven to suicide, or forced to convert to Christianity. Twelve Jews were murdered in Speyer, where the Bishop saved the rest of the Jews, but in Worms some 800 were murdered. In Mainz, over one thousand Jews were murdered, as well as more in Trier, Metz, Cologne, and elsewhere. Others were subjected to forced baptism and conversion. The preacher Folkmar and Count Emicho of Flonheim were the main inciters and leaders of the massacre. The major chroniclers of the 1096 killings are Solomon bar Simson and Albert of Aachen. Estimates of the number of Jewish men, women, and children murdered or driven to suicide by crusaders vary, ranging from 2,000 to 12,000. Julius Aronius put the number killed at 4,000, regarding other figures as too high. Norman Cohn puts the number at between 4,000 and 8,000 from May to June 1096. Gedaliah ibn Yahya estimated that some 5,000 Jews were killed from April to June 1096. Edward H. Flannery's estimate is that 10,000 were murdered over the longer January-to-July period, "probably one-fourth to one-third of the Jewish population of Germany and Northern France at that time." The clergy and nobility of Europe condemned the killing of Jews, and forbade it on subsequent crusades. Крестьянский крестовый поход. Крестьянский крестовый поход —- первый этап Первого крестового похода, продлившийся около шести месяцев, с апреля по октябрь 1096 года. Выступившая в него армия простолюдинов во главе с Петром Амьенским, или Пустынником, и Вальтером «Голяком» была практически полностью разгромлена превосходящей по численности и хорошо вооружённой сельджукской армией Кылыч-Арслана I. Крестьянский крестовый поход известен также как Народный крестовый поход или Крестовый поход бедноты.

* Emicho [Emicho of Leiningen, Emich of Flonheim; Емих ??] (X-XI). Emicho was a count in the Rhineland in the late 11th century. He is also commonly referred to as Emicho of Leiningen or Emich of Flonheim, and not to be confused with Bishop Emicho of Leiningen. In 1096, he was the leader of the Rhineland massacres (sometimes referred to as the "German Crusade of 1096") which were a series of mass murders of Jews that took place during the People's Crusade. (...) Count Emicho's precise role in the Rhineland Massacres, the series of violent attacks and forced conversions of the Rhineland's Jews just prior to the First Crusade, has been the subject of significant debate. There were many crusading forces moving through the Rhineland, but most were interested primarily in reaching the Holy Land. For instance, when Peter the Hermit and his mob of Crusaders passed through these towns and threatened the Jewish population, they had been amenable to bribes and largely left the Jews free from harassment {??}. Although Emicho has frequently been referenced in secondary and tertiary sources as having been present during the massacres of Jews in Cologne and Worms, there is sparse evidence in the primary accounts to support his involvement. Indeed, the only massacre in which Emicho definitively participated was that in Mainz. The Jewish writer of the account known as the Mainz Anonymous mentions Emicho as having been in the rough vicinity of Speyer during the massacre there, but clearly notes he did not participate in the violence. Therefore, it could not have been Emicho leading the forces that persecuted Jews in Metz or Trier, as there is no mention of his participation in the massacres prior to those in Speyer. Yet Emicho certainly led the forces that massacred the Jews of Mainz, one of the largest European Jewish communities at the time, in May 1096.

* First Crusade [Princes' Crusade; Первый крестовый поход] (1096-1099). The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The initial objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic rule. These campaigns were subsequently given the name crusades. The earliest initiative for the First Crusade began in 1095 when the Byzantine Emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, requested military support from the Council of Piacenza in the Byzantine Empire's conflict with the Seljuk-led Turks. This was followed later in the year by the Council of Clermont {1095}, during which Pope Urban II supported the Byzantine request for military assistance and also urged faithful Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. This call was met with an enthusiastic popular response across all social classes in western Europe. Mobs of predominantly poor Christians numbering in the thousands, led by Peter the Hermit, a French priest, were the first to respond. What has become known as the People's Crusade passed through Germany and indulged in wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities, including the Rhineland massacres. On leaving Byzantine-controlled territory in Anatolia, they were annihilated in a Turkish ambush led by the Seljuk Kilij Arslan at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096. In what has become known as the Princes' Crusade, members of the high nobility and their followers embarked in late-summer 1096 and arrived at Constantinople between November and April the following year. This was a large feudal host led by notable Western European princes. In total and including non-combatants, the forces are estimated to have numbered as many as 100,000. The crusaders marched into Anatolia. With Kilij Arslan absent, a Frankish attack and Byzantine naval assault during the Siege of Nicea in June 1097 resulted in an initial victory for the crusaders. In July, the crusaders won the Battle of Dorylaeum, fighting Turkish lightly-armoured mounted archers. Next the crusaders marched through Anatolia suffering casualties from starvation, thirst, and disease. The decisive and bloody Siege of Antioch was fought beginning in 1097 and the city was captured by the crusaders in June 1098. Jerusalem was reached in June 1099 and the Siege of Jerusalem resulted in the city was taken by assault from 7 June to 15 July 1099, during which its defenders were ruthlessly massacred. The Kingdom of Jerusalem was established as a secular state under the rule of Godfrey of Bouillon, who shunned the title of "king." A counterattack was repulsed that year at the Battle of Ascalon, ending the First Crusade. Afterwards the majority of the crusaders returned home. Four Crusader states were established in the Holy Land. In addition to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, these were the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli. The crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the Siege of Acre in 1291. This resulted in the loss of the last major Crusader stronghold, leading to the rapid loss of all remaining territory in the Levant. There were no further substantive attempts to recover the Holy Land after this.

* Franciscans [mendicant order; Францисканцы] (1208/9-). The Franciscans are a group of related mendicant Christian religious orders, primarily within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Saint Francis of Assisi, these orders include the Order of Friars Minor, the Order of Saint Clare, and the Third Order of Saint Francis. They adhere to the teachings and spiritual disciplines of the founder and of his main associates and followers, such as Clare of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, and Elizabeth of Hungary. Several smaller Protestant Franciscan orders exist as well, notably in the Anglican and Lutheran traditions. Francis began preaching around 1207 and traveled to Rome to seek approval from Pope Innocent III in 1209 to form a new religious order. The original Rule of Saint Francis approved by the Pope did not allow ownership of property, requiring members of the order to beg for food while preaching. The austerity was meant to emulate the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Franciscans traveled and preached in the streets, while staying in church properties. Saint Clare, under Francis's guidance, founded the Poor Clares (Order of Saint Clare) in 1212, which remains a Second Order of the Franciscans. The extreme poverty required of members was relaxed in the final revision of the Rule in 1223. The degree of observance required of members remained a major source of conflict within the order, resulting in numerous secessions. The Order of Friars Minor, previously known as the "Observant" branch, is one of the three Franciscan First Orders within the Catholic Church, the others being the "Conventuals" (formed 1517) and "Capuchins" (1520). The Order of Friars Minor, in its current form, is the result of an amalgamation of several smaller orders completed in 1897 by Pope Leo XIII. The latter two, the Capuchin and Conventual, remain distinct religious institutes within the Catholic Church, observing the Rule of Saint Francis with different emphases. Conventual Franciscans are sometimes referred to as minorites or greyfriars because of their habit. In Poland and Lithuania they are known as Bernardines, after Bernardino of Siena, although the term elsewhere refers to Cistercians instead. Spirituality. Franciscan theology conforms to broader doctrine with the Catholic Church, but involves several unique emphases. Franciscan theologians view creation, the natural world, as good and joyous, and avoid dwelling on the "stain of original sin." Saint Francis expressed great affection towards animals and inanimate natural objects as fellow inhabitants of God's creation, in his work Canticle of the Creatures. Special emphasis is put on the Incarnation of Christ viewed as a special act of humility, as Francis was struck by God's great charity in sacrificing his son for our salvation; they also exhibit great devotion to the Eucharist. The Rule of Saint Francis calls for members to practice simple living and detachment from material possessions in emulation of Jesus' life and earthly ministry. The simple lifestyle helps members of the order, in whichever branch, to experience solidarity with the poor and to work for social justice. Franciscan spirituality also strongly emphasizes working to preserve the Church, and remain loyal to it. Францисканцы. Франциска́нцы (лат. Ordo Fratrum Minorum; «минориты», «меньшие братья») — католический нищенствующий монашеский орден, основан святым Франциском Ассизским близ Сполето в 1208 году с целью проповеди в народе апостольской бедности, аскетизма, любви к ближнему. // In addition, some Franciscans had adopted the apocalyptic vision of Joachim of Fiore and had begun to argue that soon the church would wither away and be replaced by a more spiritual body of Christians: the Franciscans. Bonaventure quickly suppressed the friars and joined in condeming their writings. James R. Ginther - The Westminster Handbook to Medieval Theology // Among the Spirituals, the stricter branch of the Franciscans, a Joachite group arose, many of whom saw Antichrist already in the world in the person of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (who died in 1250). (Joachim of Fiore)

* Fraticelli [Spiritual Franciscans; Фратичелли, Францисканцы-спиритуалисты, Спиритуалы] (XIII-XV). The Fraticelli ("Little Brethren") or Spiritual Franciscans were extreme proponents of the rule of Saint Francis of Assisi, especially with regard to poverty, and regarded the wealth of the Church as scandalous, and that of individual churchmen as invalidating their status. They thus claimed that everyone else in the Church were damned and deprived of powers and were declared heretical in 1296 by Boniface VIII. The name Fraticelli is used for various sects, which appeared in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, principally in Italy, that separated from the Franciscan Order on account of the disputes concerning poverty. The Apostolics (also known as Pseudo-Apostles or Apostolic Brethren) are excluded from the category, because admission to the Order of St. Francis was expressly denied to their founder, Gerard Segarelli. They had no connection to the Franciscans, in fact desiring to exterminate them. It is therefore necessary to differentiate the various groups of Fraticelli, although the one term may be applied to all. Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose is set against the prosecution of Fraticelli. // Absolute Poverty of Christ. The doctrine of the Absolute Poverty of Christ was a teaching associated with the Franciscan order of friars, particularly prominent between 1210 and 1323. The key tenet of the doctrine of absolute poverty was that Christ and the apostles had no property, whether individually or shared. Debate about this came to a head in what is known as the theoretical poverty controversy in 1322–23. Pope John XXII declared this doctrine heretical in November 1323 via the papal bull Cum inter nonnullos, but debate on the subject continued for some years after; indeed, John's own final statement on the subject came in 1329 in his Quia vir reprobus. Key aspects of the debate included: the origins of property (or 'dominion') and whether use of material objects implied ownership; whether property existed before the Fall of Man; whether Christ while on earth had dominion over temporal things; the detailed and technical status of Christ's well attested poverty; and the apostles' use of material goods. // The bishop’s report showed that there existed a hard core of Fraticelli friars in the city, who held the usual views about poverty and the illegitimacy of the pope. One of the Fraticelli friars, Raynerius of Florence, is reported to have said by way of prophesy that the Franciscan order would be divided into three parts, and only one of these would be saved, the part that is, that would go to the East, and it was for this reason that the friars had come to those Eastern parts. Apocalyptic ideas were always prominent within the literate strata of the sect, partly under the influence of Joachim of Fiore (c.1132-1202), but especially as mediated by Peter of John Olivi (1247/8-1298), who was seen as a prophet and, sometimes as an apocalyptic figure in his own right, by some of the dissidents. NICKIPHOROS I. TSOUGARAKIS - Heretical Networks between East and West: The Case of the Fraticelli (PDF) // Franciscan spirituality motivates a way of following Christ that is based on the gospels. It embraces a diversity of vocations: lay and clerical, contemplative and active, academic and pastoral, married and celibate. Emerging out of the high middles ages, it emphasizes the humanity of Jesus Christ as the mystery of God's presence in human flesh. In his mystical experience of the stigmata on Mount La Verna two years before he died, Francis embraced Christ, his Brother, on the cross. It was an embrace so intimate it marked his flesh. The stigmatized Francis received Christ's wounded flesh in his own flesh. This has often been interpreted as affirmation of his unconditional embrace of what the Spirit revealed to him: "a form of life according to the Gospel." Francis embraced Christ in lepers, in the Church and, ultimately through the stigmata, in himself. On Mt. La Verna he received the gift of ecstatic peace. FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALITY // Fraticelli (Spiritual Franciscans). The Fraticelli ("Little Brethren") or Spiritual Franciscans were extreme proponents of the rule of Saint Francis of Assisi, especially with regard to poverty, and regarded the wealth of the Church as scandalous, and that of individual churchmen as invalidating their status. They thus claimed that everyone else in the Church were damned and deprived of powers and were declared heretical in 1296 by Boniface VIII. The name Fraticelli is used for various sects, which appeared in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, principally in Italy, that separated from the Franciscan Order on account of the disputes concerning poverty. The Apostolics (also known as Pseudo-Apostles or Apostolic Brethren) are excluded from the category, because admission to the Order of St. Francis was expressly denied to their founder, Gerard Segarelli. They had no connection to the Franciscans, in fact desiring to exterminate them. It is therefore necessary to differentiate the various groups of Fraticelli, although the one term may be applied to all. The origin of the Fraticelli and the cause of their growth within and without the Franciscan Order must be sought in the history of the Spirituals. It must suffice here to note that in consequence of St. Francis's severe requirements concerning the practice of poverty, his followers divided into two branches, the Zelanti, or Spirituals, and the Relaxati, known later as the Conventuals. The popes of the thirteenth century intervened to bring about harmony between the two factions, and Gregory IX, Innocent IV, and Nicholas III gave in their Bulls authoritative explanations of the points at issue. But the differences were not fully adjusted nor was unity ever completely restored between the Spirituals and the main body of the order, the Community (Fratres de Communitate). Catholic Encyclopedia - Fraticelli // Спиритуалы [Францисканцы-спиритуалисты]. Спиритуалы (от лат. spiritualis = духовный), или «мужи духа», — во францисканском ордене периода XIII — первой половины XIV века различные группы монахов: во-первых, выступавшие против большинства, за строгое соблюдение первоначального правила их общины; конфликт между двумя сторонами известен как спор о бедности; во-вторых, движение, возникшее с середины 1270-х годов и длившееся на протяжении 50-ти лет в двух, очень отличных друг от друга, регионах: там, где говорили на окситанском языке (ныне южная Франция) — место проповедей монаха Пьетро Оливи; в горах центральной Италии монахи брали пример с Анджело Кларено (1247/1248 — 1337) и Пьетро да Мачерата по прозвищу «Фра Либерато». Данные группы монахов разделяли следующие общие идеи: сильное апокалиптическое ожидание прибытие Антихриста и обновление Церкви, более или менее явная критика против авторитетов Церкви (особенно против папы Бонифация VIII) и Ордена (особенно генерал-министра Джованни да Морровалле); зачастую, попытка навязать францисканству более отшельнический образ жизни. В 1317 году папа Иоанн XXII объявил их идеи ересью. Тогда спиритуалы стали объединяться во внутриорденские партии реформ или образовывали отдельные секты вне ордена (например, фратичеллов), которые, как еретики, подвергались преследованиям со стороны инквизиции.

* Peter John Olivi [Franciscan theologian and philosopher; Пётр Иоанн Оливи] (1248-1298). Peter John Olivi, also Pierre de Jean Olivi or Petrus Joannis Olivi, was a Franciscan theologian and philosopher who, although he died professing the faith of the Roman Catholic Church, became a controversial figure in the arguments surrounding poverty at the beginning of the 14th century. In large part, this was due to his view that the Franciscan vow of poverty also entailed usus pauper (i.e., 'poor' or 'restricted' use of goods); while contemporary Franciscans generally agreed that usus pauper was important to the Franciscan way of life, they disagreed that it was part of their vow of poverty. His support of the extreme view of ecclesiastical poverty played a part in the ideology of the groups coming to be known as the Spiritual Franciscans or Fraticelli. Оливи, Пётр Иоанн. Пётр Иоанн Оливи (лат. Petrus Johannis Olivi), также Пьер Жан Олье (окс. Pèire Joan Oliu) или Пьетро Оливи (итал. Pietro di Olivi); род. 1248/49, Сериньян — 14 марта 1298, Нарбон), — нижне-лангедокский (ныне Франция) теолог-мистик, философ, монах-францисканец и интеллектуальный лидер спиритуалов в южной Франции. Составил мистическое толкование на Апокалипсис, пользовавшееся особым уважением его сторонников. Развивал идею постепенного развития Церкви, проходящей через семь стадий, или эпох; последняя эпоха будет благодатным царством Святого Духа, предвестником которого является францисканский орден. Именовался также Петром Сериньян (Serignan, по месту рождения) и Петром Bitterensis (от имени монастыря). Когда папа Николай III издал новую редакцию устава ордена францисканцев в 1279 г. с целью унять фанатизм, который проявляли «духовные» этого ордена, Оливи протестовал против распоряжения папы, и около него сгруппировалась партия «строгих францисканцев», получившая название «петроиоанниты». От неё впоследствии произошли католические фратичеллы.

JOACHIM OF FIORE

* Joachim of Fiore [dispensationalism, Three Eras, Father, Son, Spirit; Иоахим Флорский] (1135-1202). Joachim of Fiore (1135-1202), also known as Joachim of Flora and in Italian Gioacchino da Fiore, was an Italian theologian and the founder of the monastic order of San Giovanni in Fiore. According to theologian Bernard McGinn, "Joachim of Fiore is the most important apocalyptic thinker of the whole medieval period." Later followers, inspired by his works in eschatology and historicist theories, are called Joachimites. (...) The Joachimites believed this new age would be egalitarian and essentially monastic. Later offshoots of Joachimite thought went a good deal further. The Brethren of the Free Spirit or the Ranters are often believed to have accepted elements of Joachimite concepts. The Brethren of the Free Spirit's view of history has a noticeable resemblance. However they declared a new age to have already occurred, or was occurring, whereas the Joachimites tended to place it in a future after the Catholic Church had withered away. English confusion of the Beghards with the practices of "Free Spirit"-type groups is sometimes said to have been the origin of the old British legal term "bugger." Theory of the three ages. The mystical basis of his teaching is his doctrine of the "eternal gospel", founded on an interpretation of Revelation 14:6 (Rev 14:6, "Then I saw another angel flying in midheaven, with an eternal gospel to proclaim to those who live on the earth—to every nation and tribe and language and people." NRSV translation.). His theories can be considered millenarian; he believed that history, by analogy with the Trinity, was divided into three fundamental epochs:  The Age of the Father, corresponding to the Old Testament, characterized by obedience of mankind to the Rules of God; The Age of the Son, between the advent of Christ and 1260, represented by the New Testament, when Man became the son of God; The Age of the Holy Spirit, impending, a contemplative utopia. The Kingdom of the Holy Spirit, a new dispensation of universal love, would proceed from the Gospel of Christ, but transcend the letter of it. In this new Age the ecclesiastical organization would be replaced and the Order of the Just would rule the Church. This Order of the Just was later identified with the Franciscan order by his follower Gerardo of Borgo San Donnino. Joachim's idea of the Age of the Holy Spirit would also later greatly influence the Cult of the Holy Spirit which would in later centuries have considerable impact in Portugal and its colonies, and would suffer severe persecution by the Portuguese Inquisition. According to Joachim, only in this third age will it be possible to truly understand the words of God in their deepest meanings, and not merely literally. In this period, instead of the parousia (second Advent of Christ), a new epoch of peace and concord would begin; also, a new religious "order" of spiritual men will arise, thus making the present hierarchy of the Church almost unnecessary. Joachim distinguished between the "reign of justice" or "of law" in an imperfect society, and the "reign of freedom" in a perfect society. Condemnation. Joachim's theories were refuted by Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologica (written 1265-1274). In contrast, Dante Alighieri situated Joachim in the Paradiso of his Divine Comedy (composed c. 1320). Among the Spirituals, the stricter branch of the Franciscans, a Joachite group arose, many of whom saw Antichrist already in the world in the person of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (who died in 1250).  As the appointed year approached, spurious works began to circulate under Joachim's name: De Oneribus Prophetarum, an Expositio Sybillae et Merlini ("Exposition of the Sibyl and Merlin") and commentaries on the prophecies of Jeremiah and Isaiah. The Fourth Council of the Lateran, in 1215, condemned some of his ideas about the nature of the Trinity. In 1263, the archbishop Fiorenzo enhanced the condemnation of his writings and those of his follower Gerardo of Borgo San Donnino, joining a commission in the Synod of Arles, in which Joachim's theories were declared heretical. The accusation was of having an unorthodox view of the Holy Trinity.  His views also inspired several subsequent movements: the Amalricians, the Dulcinians and the Brethren of the Free Spirit. All of these were eventually declared heretical by the Catholic Church.  Of importance is the fact that Joachim himself was never condemned as a heretic by the Church; rather, the ideas and movement surrounding him were condemned. Joachim the man was held in high regard during his lifetime. // Robert E. Lerner - Antichrists and Antichrist in Joachim of Fiore Abstract Conversations with the Calabrian abbot Joachim of Fiore had a way of turning to the imminent advent of Antichrist: “Antichrist was coming very soon,” Joachim might say, or “Antichrist was already born in Rome,” or “the age culminating in Antichrist's persecutions will begin in a mere four years.”’ It is hence not surprising that Joachim became most famous in his own lifetime as a prophet of Antichrist. But how exactly did Joachim's warnings concerning Antichrist's imminent advent fit in with his overall view of the history of salvation? Joachim's contemporaries had more difficulty in understanding this larger issue than they had in grasping his urgent message that Antichrist was coming soon, and central questions concerning the nature of Joachim's Antichrist thought still have not been resolved by modern scholarship. Above all, two problems of interpretation remain outstanding: Given the certainty that Joachim actually believed in the coming of many Antichrists, which of these several was for him the “real and true” one? Given that Joachim's “real and true” Antichrist can indeed be identified, how did his conception of this eschatological villain compare with that of prior medieval tradition? In seeking to answer both questions I hope to show concurrently that Joachim's Antichrist theology was enormously innovative, daring, and subtle, as his thinking was in so many other regards. Иоахим Флорский. Иоахим Флорский (Калабрийский), Джоаккино да Фьоре (Joachimus Florensis, Gioacchino da Fiore) (около 1132—1202), итальянский мыслитель. Аскет, монах Цистерцианского ордена, около 1177 избран аббатом, около 1191 основал монастырь Сан-Джованни ин Фьоре как центр нового, Флорского ордена, откуда и получил своё прозвище. Создатель мистико-диалектической концепции исторического процесса, выразившей глубокий кризис средневекового миропонимания. Эта концепция, разработанная в формах символического толкования Библии (в соч. «Согласование Нового и Ветхого заветов», 1519, и «Пособие к Апокалипсису», 1527), исходит из деления всемирной истории на три «мировые состояния», или эры, соответствующие трём лицам христианской троицы — отцу, сыну и св. духу. В продолжение ветхозаветной эры отца бог раскрывается человеку как властный господин, а человек подчиняется ему как трепещущий раб; новозаветная эра сына превращает эти отношения в отношения отца и дитяти; наконец, грядущая эра св. духа сообщит им полную интимность. Каждая эра исчерпывает своё содержание в одной и той же повторяющейся последовательности этапов, что позволяет умозаключать {reason, gather, infer} от прошедшего к будущему. Выявление эры св. духа должно начаться около 1260: после периода борьбы и искушений {temptations, trial} восторжествуют любовь к бедности и начало духовной свободы, властная и притязательная {pretentious} церковь Петрова уступит своё место церкви Иоанновой, отказавшейся от ненужного бремени мирской власти и управляемой кроткими аскетами-бессребрениками {бессребреник - бескорыстный человек}, честолюбивых пап сменит вышедший из простого народа «ангелический Папа», буквальное понимание Библии станет ненужным и будет отменено через возвещение «Вечного Евангелия», наконец, произойдёт примирение католиков с православными, и в эту возрожденную вселенскую общность христиан найдут свой путь и евреи. Дух свободы, любви и мира победит насилие и устранит самую его возможность. Преображение человечества должно иметь место ещё в рамках посюсторонней {посюсторонний - книжн., устар. лежащий, находящийся по сю сторону чего-либо (границы, реки и т. п.), ближайший;  перен., религ. принадлежащий вещественному миру, реальный, земной} истории {in this world}; этот момент делает учение И. Ф. связующим звеном между древним хилиазмом и плебейскими ересями позднего средневековья. Судьбы наследия И. Ф. в течение 13 — начала 14 вв. были тесно связаны с францисканством, также учившим о «святой нищете»; создаётся обширная псевдо-иоахимовская литература. Дольчино {Fra Dolcino} делает из учения И. Ф. программу мятежа. Позднее идеи И. Ф. повлияли на идеологию Кола ди Риенцо {Cola di Rienzo}, а через него — на весь дух новоевропейского политического мессианизма; в эпоху Реформации они оказали воздействие на Т. Мюнцера {Thomas Müntzer}. Отголоски умозрения И. Ф. можно усматривать в философском конструировании смысла истории у Г. Гегеля, Ф. Шеллинга и особенно у русского религиозного философа В. С. Соловьёва. // В XIII веке в исторических исследованиях возобладал новый подход: апокалиптическое прочтение мировой истории, основанное на перспективе конца времён, описываемых в Апокалипсисе (направление, известное под названием милленаризма). Наиболее ярким представителем этого течения был калабрийский аббат Иоахим Флорский (Джоаккино да Фьоре), который, правда, не претендовал на звание историка церкви. В своей мистико-диалектической концепции всемирной истории он исходил из деления её на эры, соответствующие трём лицам Святой Троицы: 1. На эру Отца, которая соответствует Ветхому Завету (это период спасения посредством Закона Моисея; проповедником этой эры считался апостол Пётр); 2. Современную ему самому (Иоахиму) эру Сына (с введением закона свободы, как принципа спасения; проповедником этой эры считался апостол Павел); 3. Эру Святого Духа (несущего новый закон Откровения - закон любви), которая должна была, по его мнению, начать выявляться около 1260 г. Последняя эра характеризовалась им как царство аскетизма, пронизанное духом свободы, любви и мира. После этого периода, считал Иоахим Флорский, наступит конец мира.  Диспенсационные идеи Иоахима Флорского (и Амальрика Венского) вызвали протест Фомы Аквинского, Бонавентуры и ряда других мыслителей средневековья. Главный аргумент против столь спиритуалистической периодизации истории состоял в следующем: вся полнота искупления дана во Христе, и нет никаких оснований, ожидать наступления в будущем принципиально нового периода, который можно было бы отождествить с эрой Святого Духа. Однако впоследствии символически-пророческое прочтение истории в свете Апокалипсиса имело влияние на развитие хилиастического учения. В описываемую эпоху в изучении христианства и христианской церкви главенствовал догматический метод, суть которого - в авторитете, предполагающем точку зрения, недосягаемую для любой, в том числе и исторической критики. Считалось, что все факты, так или иначе связанные с историей христианства и церкви, события не реальной (профанной) истории, а истории спасения. Они могут быть восприняты и правильно поняты только верующим сердцем. Крживецкая, Екатерина Александровна - Эволюция организации и структуры управления в раннехристианской церкви 2005 [E19]

* Joachimites [Joachites; Иохамиты] (XIII). The Joachimites, also known as Joachites, a millenarian group, arose from the Franciscans in the thirteenth century. They based their ideas on the prior works of Joachim of Fiore, though rejecting the Church of their day more strongly than he had. Inspiration of Joachim. Joachim's works divide history into three ages. The first age was of the Father. The age of the Father was the age of the Old Covenant. The second age was of the Son and therefore the world of Christianity. The third and final age would be that of the Holy Spirit. In this new age an "Eternal Gospel" would be revealed "fulfilling" and replacing the organized church. After that society would be realigned on an egalitarian and utopian monastic base. The first age is said to have been of forty-two generations. The second age would also be of 42 generations. Joachim seemed to suggest the Christian era would end in 1260 with the coming of the Anti-Christ. After that a utopian age would arrive. Initially this did not cause condemnation; efforts recently have even been made toward his canonization, as what was meant was disputed.[citation needed] Several interpreters view his utopian age literally as heaven or, at least, as the age after the Second Coming since it comes after the Anti-Christ and the Tribulation {Millennium}. Consequently, to state that the Church would then be unnecessary might be acceptable. Controversy. In 1215 some of his ideas were condemned in the Fourth Council of the Lateran. Further, his admirers came to believe the beginning of this New Age would be ushered in by the coming of a virtuous Pope from the Franciscan order {Angelic pope}. They considered Celestine V* (elected in 1294) to be this Pope. His resignation, and death in 1296 in the dungeons of the next Pope {Boniface VIII}, was considered a sign of the coming of the Anti-Christ. Around this time, or somewhat before, they further decided Joachim's own writings were the Eternal Gospel or the road to it. The fact that the movement also moved toward a more practical approach did have some influence. It was one of the first movements to be heavily geared toward the future as being made perfectible through human action. This action was largely to lead toward a great supernatural event, but had a great deal of real world notions of progress. Ultimately, however, this was also generally opposed, as utopian revelations were deemed to be foolishness or even heresy. Influences. {This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.} The Joachimites believed this new age would be egalitarian and essentially monastic. Later offshoots of Joachimite thought went a good deal further. The Brethren of the Free Spirit or the Ranters are often believed to have accepted elements of Joachimite concepts. The Brethren of the Free Spirit's view of history has a noticeable resemblance. However they declared a new age to have already occurred, or was occurring, whereas the Joachimites tended to place it in a future after the Catholic Church had withered away. English confusion of the Beghards with the practices of "Free Spirit"-type groups is sometimes said to have been the origin of the old British legal term "bugger." Another sect inspired by Joachim's theories were the Dulciniasts. The Franciscan Joachimites, along with members of the Knights Templar {??}, inspired in Portugal, in the late 12th century and early 13th century, the creation of the Cult of the Holy Spirit {Cult of the Empire of the Holy Spirit}. Other historians indicate parallels between the Joachimites and later millenarian forms of Christianity. It is fairly common for millenarian or messianic Christian movements to view themselves as leading into a new age of the Holy Spirit. Groups as diverse as the Quakers, Shakers, Mita Congregation, and the Holy Spirit Movement have all believed that a new age of the Holy Spirit was in some sense dawning. Others relate Joachimite ideas to any group that believes in the "New Age". There are less direct ideological linkages to the Protestant Reformation and less historically confirmed ones to Marxism. The Joachimites, and not Joachim himself, were condemned by the Catholic Church after Celestine V. Other rhetoric they used would be mirrored by a few of the early leaders of the Reformation. However, the Joachimites' idea of having a new revelation which superseded Christianity would not be adopted by any significant figure in the Reformation. Their idea that the hierarchical, authoritarian structure of the Church would collapse, to lead toward a leaderless egalitarian communal state is seen by some[citation needed] as an indirect influence, or at least a precursor, to Marx's idea of a perfect communist democracy arising from the dictatorship of the proletariat.

* Three ages of Fiore's Millenialism [Три периода истории Иоахима Флорского]. The early Christian concepts of millenialism had ramifications far beyond strictly religious concerns during the centuries to come, as various theorists blended and enhanced them with ideas of utopia.  In the wake of early millennial thinking, the Three Ages philosophy developed. The Italian monk and theologian Joachim of Fiore (died 1202) saw all of human history as a succession of three ages: 1) the Age of the Father (the Old Testament); 2) the Age of the Son (the New Testament); 3) the Age of the Holy Spirit (the age begun when Christ ascended into heaven, leaving the Paraclete {helper; the Holy Spirit}, the third person of the Holy Trinity, to guide the faithful) It was believed that the Age of the Holy Spirit would begin at around 1260, and that from then on all believers would live as monks, mystically transfigured and full of praise for God, for a thousand years until Judgment Day would put an end to the history of our planet.  Joachim of Fiore's divisions of historical time also highly influenced the New Age movement, which transformed the Three Ages philosophy into astrological terminology, relating the Northern-hemisphere vernal equinox to different constellations of the zodiac. In this scenario the Age of the Father was recast as the Age of Aries, the Age of the Son became the Age of Pisces, and the Age of the Holy Spirit was called the Aquarian New Age. The current so-called "Age of Aquarius" will supposedly witness the development of a number of great changes for humankind, reflecting the typical features of some manifestations of millennialism. // Abbot Joachim’s Book of Illustrations The illustration, known as the Tree-Ladder of the Three Judgements (see fig.2), gives a clear visual image of the three-fold nature of universal religious growth.  The line of development for each stage of religious understanding, – Jewish, Christian and spiritual, – grows out of the previous one, and is symbolised by a key female figure from the Bible. There is another, similar tree-ladder, which gives more precise information about chronology.  It states that the church of the Son, which had been sterile from the time of Abraham until that of John the Baptist, would be fecund from then until the “present time”, and that the church of the Holy Spirit, sterile until the present time, would be fecund until the end of the world.  On the third branch of the diagram, between “the present time” and “the persecution of Gog”, which leads to “the end of the world”, is marked “the fructification of the third state”. In the illustration known as the Tree-Circles,[27] or the two-stemmed tree of Noah (see fig.3), two stems grow up from two of Noah’s sons, Shem, the ancestor of the Semites, and Japhet, the ancestor of the Gentiles.  (Ham is shown as a sterile stump.)  As the 2 stems grow up and cross over each other, they form 3 circles for the 3 ages of religious history.  In the first circle, that of the Old Testament, the Jewish stem is on the left and is flourishing a little bit more than the Gentile one.  In the second circle, the time of the New Testament and the Church, the Gentile or Christian stem is on the left and flourishing.  In the third circle, both stems burst simultaneously into a wealth of luxuriant growth, to symbolise the unimaginable new life, which will become manifest in the third status.

* Вечное Евангелие [Evangelium aeternum, Everlasting Gospel, Franciscans, Fiore]. Вечное Евангелие (лат. Evangelium aeternum; фр. l'Évangile éternel) — именование, с половины XIII века, основанное на Апокалипсисе (Откр. 14:6: «И увидел я другого Ангела, летящего по средине неба, который имел вечное Евангелие») предсказания «вечного царства Святого Духа, совершенного богопознания {knowledge of God} и полной духовной свободы», которое должно наступить после царств Бога Отца (Ветхий Завет) и Бога Сына (Новый Завет). Сама идея была провозглашена итальянским мистиком и аскетом Иоахимом Флорским, который был сначала монахом и настоятелем монастыря в Калабрии, а позже — основателем новой конгрегации Флорский орден (лат. Ordo Florensis), и умер в 1202 году. // Evangelium AEternum. (Everlasting Gospel), the name given to a book published in the 13th century (A.D. 1254), which was properly entitled Introductorius in Evangelium aeternum, probably written by the Franciscan Gerhardus. The idea of a new "everlasting Gospel" was one of the peculiar notions of Joachim of Floris (t 1202), who attacked the corruptions of the Church, and predicted an approaching renovation. SEE JOACHIM OF FLORIS. These predictions were appropriated by the Franciscans as really referring to the rise and character of their order, which was founded by Francis of Assisi six years after Joachim's death. An apocalyptic party arose among the Franciscans, which seems to have been led by Gerhardus, and by Johannes of Parma (q.v.). The Introductorius in Evangelium aeternum seems to have been chiefly made up from three of the writings of Joachim. It set forth Joachim's doctrine of the "dispensations" (status) of the Church, the last of which, the dispensation of the Spirit, was to be opened about A.D. 1200. The movement was a new form of Montanism. "Many vague notions were entertained about the Eternal Gospel of the Franciscans, arising from superficial views, or a superficial understanding of Joachim's writings, and the offspring of mere rumor of the heresy-hunting spirit. Men spoke of the Eternal Gospel as of a book composed under this title, and circulated among the Franciscans. Occasionally, also, this Eternal Gospel was confounded perhaps with the above-mentioned Introductorius. In reality, there was no book existing under this title of the Eternal Gospel, but all that is said about it relates simply to the writings of Joachim. The opponents of the Franciscan order objected to the preachers of the Eternal Gospel, that, according to their teaching, Christianity was but a transient thing, and a new, more perfect religion, the absolute form, destined to endure forever, was to succeed it. William of St. Amour (De periculis novissimorum temporum, page 38) says: 'For the past fifty-five years some have been striving to substitute in place of the Gospel of Christ another gospel, which is said to be a more perfect one, which they call the Gospel of the Holy Spirit, or the Everlasting Gospel;' whence it is manifest that the anti-Christian doctrine would even now be preached from the pulpits if there were not still something that withholdeth (2Th 2:6), namely, the power of the pope and the bishops. It is said in that accursed book, which they called the Everlasting Gospel, which had already been made known in the Church, that the Everlasting Gospel is as much superior to the Gospel of Christ as the sun is to the moon in brightness, the kernel to the shell in value. The kingdom of the Church, or the Gospel of Christ, was to last only till the year '1260.' In a sermon, St. Amour points out the following as doctrines of the Everlasting Gospel: that the sacrament of the Church is nothing; that a new law of life was to be given, and a new constitution of the Church introduced; and he labors to show that, on the contrary, the form of the hierarchy under which the Church then subsisted was one resting on the divine order, and altogether necessary and immutable" (Neander, Church Hist. 4:619). The Introductorius has not come down to us, but its contents are partly known from a writing of Hugo of Caro. McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia - Evangelium Aeternum // Апостолики. Апосто́лики (апостольские братья) — общее наименование различных христианских сект, протестовавших против обмирщения церкви и проповедовавших возвращение к апостольской простоте. В III и IV вв. апостолики, называемые также апотактиками, появились во многих местах Малой Азии, но скоро были уничтожены. Они проповедовали, что спасения не достигнут те, кто обладает собственностью и живет в браке. В XII веке так называлась часть катаров на Нижнем Рейне. В XIII веке многочисленная секта апостоликов появилась в Италии. Герардо Сегарелли Пармский, бывший францисканец, отказался от своих имений и в 1260 г., как нищенствующий апостол, в сопровождении своих единомышленников, братьев и сестер, отправился странствовать и проповедовать раскаяние в грехах. В 1280 г. Сегарелли был схвачен, в 1286 г. освобожден, но изгнан из Пармской епархии, в 1286 г. папа Гонорий IV приказал уничтожить все общины, существующие без папского разрешения. Давление со стороны пап вызвало протест апостоликов, и они открыто стали критиковать недостатки омирщенной католической церкви. Руководясь апокалиптическими образами, они предсказывали гибель папства. Сегарелли был снова схвачен в 1294 г. и, несмотря на своё отречение, сожжён в 1300 г. Во главе партии стал Дольчино, незаконный сын священника из Новары и его подруги Маргариты. В своих пророческих посланиях он предсказывал начало нового периода мира с 1303 г. Первый период охватывает Ветхий Завет, второй начинается с Иисуса Христа, третий с папы Сильвестра и императора Константина, с четвертым мир должен окончиться. Поэтому он предлагал отказаться от всех земных благ и вернуться к апостольской простой жизни, заменить брак духовным союзом мужа и жены, на место внешних предписаний и обычаев поставить свободный дух любви. Против инквизиции Дольчино допускал использование лжи и оружия. В 1304 г. он с отрядом в тысячу человек предпринял смелый набег на Верхнюю Италию. На горе Цебелло он был окружен войском епископа Верчельского, голодал и в 1307 г. был сожжён на костре. Апостолики просуществовали в Ломбардии и Южной Франции вплоть до 1368 года.

* Cult of the Holy Spirit [Cult of the Empire of the Holy Spirit] (XIV ??). The Cult of the Holy Spirit (Portuguese: Culto do Divino Espírito Santo), also known as the Cult of the Empire of the Holy Spirit (Culto do Império do Divino Espírito Santo), is a religious sub-culture, inspired by Christian millenarian mystics, associated with Azorean Catholic identity, consisting of iconography, architecture, and religious practices that have continued in many communities of the archipelago as well as the broader Portuguese diaspora. Beyond the Azores, the Cult of the Holy Spirit is alive in parts of Brazil (where it was established three centuries ago) and pockets of Portuguese settlers in North America. The Cult of the Holy Spirit involves traditional rituals and religious celebrations of these faith communities. In its original sense, "cult" referred to an accepted religious practice, in sharp contrast to the term's modern, negative connotation. Devotion to the Holy Spirit is part of classical Catholic dogma and is the inspiration of several Catholic religious institutes, including the Spiritans, but what is considered here has peculiar characteristics of its own. History. Joachimites. Worship of the Holy Spirit was promoted by Joachim of Fiore, a millenarian prophet who, on the basis on his interpretation of the Book of Revelation, postulated that 1260 would see the beginning of A Third Age. (He himself died in 1202.) The Third Age would be governed by the Holy Spirit and would represent a monastic governance, in which the hierarchy of the Church would be unnecessary and infidels would unite with Christians. These theories became associated with the Fraticelli strand of the Franciscan Order and were condemned by Pope Alexander IV in 1256. Cult. Two hundred years later, there was a rebirth of the popularity of these doctrines in the Azores; their religious manifestations, rituals and symbols began to permeate the islands and, consequently, persist until today. These acts of faith were heavily influenced by Franciscan spiritualists, who were members of the first religious order that colonized the Azores, and brought with them traditions that were being extinguished on the mainland by Catholic Church orthodoxy. Here, in isolated communities under environmental pressures and the uncertainties of life, the millenarian rites of the Holy Spirit were accepted and fostered. The Azores, and those communities that had their origins in the archipelago, became the last outposts of Joachimite doctrines. // Cult of the Empire of the Holy Spirit. Tomar is a medieval city in the central region of Portugal, known internationally mostly due to the “Festa dos Tabuleiros” (Festival of the Trays), and for being the place of the Convent of Christ, one of Portugal’s longest listed UNESCO World Heritage Sites, but rich in tangible and intangible heritage that is little known to the general audience since the most marketed location is the Convent itself, which draws aficionados of Templar History from all around the world due to its unique history as the extant building which was the longest under control of the Templar Order. (...) The Cult of the Empire of the Holy Spirit derives from the Joachimite eschatology, a set of prophecies made by the theologian and apocalyptic thinker Joachim of Fiore (1135–1202), who separated history in Three Eras: the Era of the Father – idealized to be between the times of the Old Testament until the Advent of Christ; the Era of the Son – which would be between the Advent and 1260, corresponding to the New Testament; and the Era of the Holy Spirit – an era of utopia in which the Church would be replaced by an “Order of the Just”, replacing secular governance by monastic governance and eliminating the church hierarchy. The world would be covered in universal love, and all non-Christians would convert to Christianity and mankind would live in perfect egalitarianism. Predominant in the Fraticelli faction of the Franciscan Order, these beliefs were imported alongside the order by Queen Isabel into Portugal as mentioned above. In 1256, Pope Alexander IV condemned the Fraticelli and the Joachimite prophecies and set the Inquisition to hunt for their adepts, who in Portugal were protected by the Order of Christ. In its heyday, the cult would spread from Alenquer to Sintra, Lisboa, Coimbra, and Tomar, and from Lisboa, it would be exported to the Azores, where it would flourish and maintain itself down to the 21st century, and Madeira, Brazil, California, and Hawaii on which it either vanished as the populations were unable to keep the traditions and social cohesion or they were assimilated into the locals. Regardless, the Cult of the Holy Spirit shaped much of the national identity for over seven hundred years as the original Joachimite doctrines merged with the Sebastianist belief, a form of messianism adapted to the Portuguese situation in the late 16th century, which declared that the Portuguese King D. Sebastião, who disappeared in battle in 1578 would return in a misty morning in order to renovate the Portuguese Empire and lead the world into the Messianic Age. This belief itself was derived from the Trovas by the shoemaker and prophet Gonçalo Bandarra (1500–1556), whose interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures spoke of the rise of the “Encoberto” (Shrouded in English), a messianic figure that through the later interpretation of D. João de Castro and Father António Vieira (1608–1697) was related to the king who would restore the lost independence of Portugal, and afterward, evolved into the figure that would save the country from poverty and assimilation. Sebastianism and the Joachimite Doctrines merged, creating the Portuguese blend of the Cult of the Holy Spirit which due to the protection and instigation by the Order of Christ, survived the Inquisition’s attempt to blot it out of existence. Nowadays, the cult is still celebrated in Tomar and outskirts, Coimbra, the Azores, and some pockets of the Lusitanian Diaspora in America. Of key note are the celebrations of Carregueiros, near Tomar and the Azorean celebrations, which still retain the brunt of the original traditions. (PDF) Ana Alice, Bento Ribeiro, Hidalgo de Lacerda - Tomar and its People //  Congregation of the Holy Spirit [Конгрегация Святого Духа] (1703). The Congregation of the Holy Spirit (Latin: Congregatio Sancti Spiritus; abbreviation: CSSp), in full the Congregation of the Holy Spirit under the protection of the Immaculate Heart of the Virgin Mary (Latin: Congregatio Sancti Spiritus sub tutela Immaculati Cordis Beatissimae Virginis Mariae) is a male religious congregation of the Catholic Church. In continental Europe they are known as Spiritans, while in the Anglosphere, they are known as the Holy Ghost Fathers.

* Apostolic Brethren [Apostolics, Pseudo-Apostles, Segarelli, penitents; Апостолики] (XIII). The Apostolic Brethren (sometimes referred to as Apostolici, Apostoli, Apostles) were a Christian sect founded in northern Italy in the latter half of the 13th century by Gerard Segarelli, a native of Alzano in the territory of Parma. He was of low birth and without education, applied for membership in the Franciscan order at Parma, and was rejected. Ultimately he resolved to devote himself to the restoration of what he conceived to be the apostolic manner of life. Most of the spirit of the movement continued in the Dulcinian movement. About 1260, Segarelli assumed a costume patterned after representations which he had seen of the apostles, sold his house, scattered the price in the market-place, and went out to preach repentance as a mendicant brother. He found disciples, and the new order of penitents spread throughout Lombardy and beyond it. (...) A time of persecution followed. At Parma in 1294 four members of the sect were burned, and Segarelli was condemned to perpetual imprisonment. Six years later he was made to confess a relapse into heresies which he had abjured, and was burned in Parma on July 18, 1300. A man of greater gifts now took the lead of the sect. This was Dolcino, the son of a priest in the diocese of Novara, and a member of the order since 1291, an eloquent, enthusiastic utterer of apocalyptic prophecies. As the head of the group, who were in daily expectation of seeing the judgment of God on the Church, he maintained in the mountainous districts of Novara and Vercelli a guerilla warfare campaign against the crusaders who had been summoned to put him down. Cold and hunger were still more dangerous enemies; and finally the remnant of his forces were captured by the bishop of Vercelli: about 150 persons in all, including Dolcino himself and his "spiritual sister," Margareta, both of whom, refusing to recant, were burned at the stake on June 1, 1307. This was really the end of the sect's history. Later, in the middle of the century, traces of their activity are found, especially in northern Italy, Spain, and France, but these were only isolated survivals. Ideals. The ideal which the Apostolic Brethren strove to realize was a life of perfect sanctity, in complete poverty, with no fixed domicile, no care for the morrow, and no vows. It was a protest against the invasion of the Church by the spirit of worldliness, as well as against the manner in which the other orders kept their vows, particularly that of poverty. In itself the project might have seemed harmless enough, not differing greatly from the way in which other founders had begun. When the order was prohibited, however, the refusal to submit to ecclesiastical authority stamped its members as heretics. Persecution embittered their opposition; the Church, in their eyes, had fallen completely away from apostolic holiness, and become Babylon the Great, the persecutor of the saints. Their apocalyptic utterances and expectations are a link with the Joachimites; in fact, parallels to their teaching, mostly founded on literal interpretations of Scripture texts, may be found in many heretical bodies. They forbade the taking of oaths, apparently permitting perjury in case of need, and rejected capital punishment; their close intercourse with their "apostolic sisters" gave rise to serious accusations against their morals, though they themselves boasted of their purity, and considered the conquest of temptation so close at hand as especially meritorious. // The Fraticelli ("Little Brethren") or Spiritual Franciscans were extreme proponents of the rule of Saint Francis of Assisi, especially with regard to poverty, and regarded the wealth of the Church as scandalous, and that of individual churchmen as invalidating their status. They thus claimed that everyone else in the Church was damned and deprived of powers, and the Fraticelli were declared heretical in 1296 by Boniface VIII. The name Fraticelli is used for various sects, which appeared in the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, principally in Italy, that separated from the Franciscan Order on account of the disputes concerning poverty. The Apostolics (also known as Pseudo-Apostles or Apostolic Brethren) are excluded from the category, because admission to the Order of St. Francis was expressly denied to their founder, Gerard Segarelli. The Apostolics had no connection to the Franciscans, in fact desiring to exterminate them. It is necessary to differentiate the various groups of Fraticelli, although the one term may be applied to all. (Fraticelli)

* Dulcinians (Dulcinites, Dulcinists, Fra Dolcino, Apostolics, "Gazzari", mountain fortress, violence; Дольчиниты). The Dulcinians were a religious sect of the Late Middle Ages, originating within the Apostolic Brethren. The Dulcinians, or Dulcinites, and Apostolics were inspired by Franciscan ideals and influenced by the Joachimites, but were considered heretical by the Catholic Church. Their name derives from the movement's leader, Fra Dolcino of Novara (ca. 1250–1307), who was burned as a heretic on the orders of Pope Clement V. The Dulcinian sect began in 1300 when Gherardo Segarelli, founder of the Apostolic Brethren, was burned at the stake in Parma during a brutal repression of the Apostolics. His followers went into hiding to save their lives. Fra Dolcino had joined the Apostolics between 1288 and 1292, and became their leader. He published the first of his letters explaining his ideas about the epochs of history based on the theories of Gioacchino da Fiore. Fra Dolcino, at the beginning of 1303, reunited the Apostolic movement near Lake Garda. He met Margaret of Trent (real name Margherita Boninsegna, his lover or sister in spirit), and wrote the second letter to the Apostolics. At the beginning of 1304, three Dulcinians were burned by the Inquisition, leading Dolcino to evacuate the community to the west side of the Sesia valley, near his native Novara. At the end of 1304, only 1400 survived on the top of Mount Parete Calva, in the fortified Piano dei Gazzari. They descended the mountain to pillage and kill the people in the valley, responsible in their eyes for not defending the group against the episcopal troops. The villagers called them "Gazzari" (Cathars), and joined the soldiers in opposition. Dolcino justified the acts committed by the Dulcinians by affirming their perfection and holiness based on Saint Paul's Epistle to Titus (1:15): "To the pure all things are pure, but to the corrupt and unbelieving nothing is pure; their very minds and consciences are corrupted." Margaret and Dolcino were captured and executed. // Dulcinists. Dulcinists followers of Dolcino, or Dulcinus, a priest and native of Novara, Italy, who followed Segarelli as leader of the Apostolici, about AD 1300. He and his followers, being put under the ban, fortified a mountain in Novara, where they were taken prisoners. "He was charged with contempt of the Catholic hierarchy; also with asserting a succession of three theocracies {dispensationalism} — that those under the Father and the Son were already passed; that the third, under the Holy Spirit, was then in operation. His followers called themselves 'The Spiritual Congregation and the Order of the Apostles.' 'We alone (they said) are in the perfection in which the apostles were, and in the liberty which proceeds immediately from Jesus Christ. Wherefore we acknowledge obedience neither to the pope nor to any other human being; nor has he any power to excommunicate us . . . The pope can give no absolution from sins unless he be as holy as St. Peter, living in entire poverty and humility . . . so that all the popes and prelates since St. Sylvester, having deviated from that original holiness, are prevaricators and seducers, with the single exception of pope Celestine, Pietro di Morone, etc.' (See Fleury, 54, sec. 23) Lastly, to consummate his odium, his followers, who were not very numerous, were assailed with the primitive and accustomed calumny of promiscuous prostitution" (Waddington, Church History, chapter 22). Extracts from two of the writings of Dolcino are given in the Historia Dulcini, and in the Additamentum ad Historiam Dulcini in Muratori, Script. Rer. Ital. 9 sq., cited in Herzog, Real-Ecyklop. 3 sq., from which we condense the following statements. After strongly asserting his orthodoxy, Dolcino predicted that in the year 1303 his opponents should be destroyed; that he and his followers should then, without molestation, preach publicly, and in these last days all Christians should embrace his doctrines. As this prophecy was not fulfilled in 1303, he postponed its fulfillment to 1304, under the pretense that God had especially called him, and made known to him the import of the Bible prophecies. He distinguished four epochs in the history of the divine life, each of which was good in the first instance, but had been superseded as it became degenerate. The patriarchs of the old covenant belonged to the first epoch. In the second, Christ appeared with his apostles, to supersede the degenerated Judaism by new virtues, especially celibacy, poverty, and the giving up of earthly goods. The third epoch began with pope Sylvester and the emperor Constantine, when the Christians, in order to educate the newly-converted masses of heathen in Christian life and duty, were obliged to accept riches, and show the heathen how to apply the goods of this world to the honor of God. But zeal waxed cold, and the love of the world increased, until a reaction appeared in the Order of St Benedict. As this effort to induce self-denial in the clergy and the monks failed, the more stringent rules of the Dominicans and Franciscans followed. But these also were of no effect. The fourth epoch, according to Dolcino, was the renewal of apostolic life by Segarelli and himself, to continue to the end of the world. This apostolical life demands self-denial and renunciation of earthly possessions, and consists in the unity of the brethren in the love of the Holy Ghost, without external forms, usages, or regulations. From these doctrines it would appear that the teachings of the abbot Joachim (q.v.) had had a certain effect upon Dolcino, and that the views which Joachim cherished in ie rard to the era of the Holy Ghost were embraced by Dolcino, although this is generally denied. Aside from the apocalyptical prophecies, the doctrines of Dolcino seem to be penetrated by a mysticism which repudiated external things, considering them as the cause of evil. Love, in its perfection, was to be realized as the inner bond of souls, supreme over all law. All human relations, especially that of man and wife, were to be founded upon a merely spiritual union; all law, as well as all right of property, were to be removed, so that nothing should prevent man from enjoying the highest state of perfection. Dolcino lived himself with a former nun, Margaretha, whom he called his diletissima soror, in voluntary poverty. The dangerous tendency of such doctrines is obvious. That Dolcino perceived the true nature and causes of certain abuses in the Church, and that he honestly desired to correct them can hardly be questioned. His memory was long cherished by the common people; to them he seemed a hero and martyr, while to the armies which persecuted him he seemed a false prophet, punished by the powerful arm of God. Dante compares Dolcino to Mohammed (Inferno, 28, etc.). Dolcino was tortured to death at Vercelli by order of Clement V. See Mosheim (Murdoch's ed.), Church History, book 3, c. 13, part 2, chapter 5, § 14; Krone, Fra Dolcino und d'e Patarener (Leips; l,844); Mariotti, Frad Doelcino and his Times (London. 1853); Gieseler, Church History, 2, § 87; and APOSTOLICI SEE APOSTOLICI ; SEGARELLI SEE SEGARELLI . McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia - Dulcinists // It was with the blood of innocents on their hands and the smoking ruins of rich towns in their wake that, in 1307, the adherents of the Dulcinian reform movement followed their leader, Fra Dolcino, to the slopes of Monte Rebello and erected the fortifications they hoped would protect them from the armies that pursued them. They hoped in vain. Rebello fell on March 23, 1307: its positions overrun, its defenders slaughtered, Dolcino captured and later publicly executed by the Church he’d warred against in the name of change – by the society that took notice of his and his followers’ despair only when they took up their swords. (...) it is as inevitable as the rising of the sun or the changing of the seasons that the outcast will channel his anguish and his rage into loyalty to a leader who has only his own interests at heart, and the society the outcast rages against will misinterpret his motives, and the outcast’s justifiable concerns will lead to unjustifiable outcomes, and the reassertion of society’s prerogatives will leave the outcast where he’s always been: outside the flock, outside the family, outside the community of the whole. And his attempt to upend the world that he believes doesn’t want him will have ended in squalor and silence – until another leader comes along, and it all begins again. The slopes of Monte Rebello

* Fra Dolcino [reformer, heretic, Apostolics, Dulcinians, sinlessness; Дольчино] (1250-1307) was the second leader of the Dulcinian reformist movement who was burned at the stake in Northern Italy in 1307. He had taken over the movement after its founder, Gerard Segarelli, had also been executed in 1300 on the orders of the Roman Catholic Church. Although the beliefs and spirituality of the Dulcinian sect were inspired by the teachings of Francis of Assisi, who had founded the Franciscan Order in 1210, their beliefs were condemned as heresy by the Catholic Church. The Papacy condemned their practices of poverty, liberty and opposition to the feudal system. Fra Dolcino, a former member, became in 1300 the leader of the movement of Apostolics, and influenced by the millenarist theories of Gioacchino da Fiore gave birth to the Dulcinian movement, which existed between the years 1300 and 1307. It ended in the mountains in Sesia Valley and in the Biella area, in Piedmont, Italy, on 23 March 1307 when many crusaders (multi crucesignati) finally conquered the fortification built on the mount Rubello by the Dulcinians. According to the Roman Catholic Church and most historians of the period, Dolcino and his followers, in reaction to attacks by Catholic troops, became criminals (today they would be probably called guerrilla fighters), who would not hesitate, for their own survival, to plunder and devastate villages, killing any who opposed them, and burning their houses. He justified the actions committed by his followers in this period citing Saint Paul (Epistle to Titus 1:15): "To the pure all things are pure, but to the corrupt and unbelieving nothing is pure; their very minds and consciences are corrupted", as reported by the Anonymous Synchronous. Dolcino maintained: "[...] that it was legitimate for him and his followers to hang, behead, [...] people who obey to the Roman church and burn down, destroy, [...] because they were acting to redeem them and thus without sin".  Despite this, he was considered by some to be one of the reformers of the Church and one of the founders of the ideals of the French revolution and socialism. In particular he was positively reevaluated toward the end of the 19th century and was dubbed the Apostle of the Socialist Jesus and thus in 1907 left wing workers of Biella and the Sesia Valley erected a monument on mount Rubello, the place of its last resistance. The monument was later (1927) symbolically gunned down by the Fascists and rebuilt in a smaller size and different shape in 1974. Fra Dolcino and his co-preacher or concubine Margaret of Trent were never tried by the Church. Manly Hall claims (as do many other modern writers) that Dolcino was castrated and torn to pieces, limb by limb, the pieces afterward burned by the public executioner. Дольчино. Дольчино (итал. Fra Dolcino; около 1250 — 1 июня 1307) — ересиарх, глава секты «апостольских братьев» (апостоликов) и связанного с ней народного движения на территории современных итальянских провинций Новара и Верчелли. Настоящее имя его осталось неизвестным, своё прозвище же, которое можно перевести как «Сладчайший», он, вероятно, получил за красноречие. // Дольчино, вождь известного народного восстания, являлся приверженцем ереси «Апостольских братьев» {The Apostolic Brethren (sometimes referred to as Apostolici, Apostoli, Apostles) were a Christian sect founded in northern Italy in the latter half of the 13th century by Gerard Segarelli, a native of Alzano in the territory of Parma.Most of the spirit of the movement continued in the Dulcinian movement.}. Основателем этой еретической секты был молодой крестьянин из-под Пармы Герардинус (Джерардо) Сегарелли. Рассказы современников рисуют его отчасти мужичком себе на уме, отчасти – придурковатым {silly}, но судя по его успеху, в нем были и какие-то иные качества. Русская историческая библиотека - Восстание Дольчино // Is the doctrine of the pretribulation rapture a nineteenth century theological invention as is sometimes alleged? (...) One such text containing a concept bearing striking similarity to modern pretribulationism is a fourteenth-century text entitled The History of Brother Dolcino. Composed in 1316 by an anonymous notary of the diocese of Vercelli in northern Italy, this short Latin treatise gives a firsthand account of the deeds and beliefs of a religious order called the Apostolic Brethren. Under the leadership of Brother Dolcino of Novara (d. 1307), the Apostolic Brethren flourished in the author’s diocese between the years 1300 and 1307. "Again, [Dolcino believed and preached and taught] that within those three years Dolcino himself and his followers will preach the coming of the Antichrist. And that the Antichrist was coming into this world within the bounds of the said three and a half years; and after he had come, then he [Dolcino] and his followers would be transferred into Paradise, in which are Enoch and Elijah. And in this way they will be preserved unharmed from the persecution of Antichrist. And that then Enoch and Elijah themselves would descend on the earth for the purpose of preaching [against] Antichrist. Then they would be killed by him or by his servants, and thus Antichrist would reign for a long time. But when the Antichrist is dead, Dolcino himself, who then would be the holy pope, and his perserved followers, will descend on the earth, and will preach the right faith of Christ to all, and will convert those who will be living then to the true faith of Jesus Christ.”" (In the midst of widespread belief in the high middle ages that the papal office had been corrupted, many medieval Christians believed that in the last days God would raise up an “angelic pastor” or “holy pope.” He would be committed to evangelical poverty and would unite and reform Christianity. Prefigured in Revelation 3 as the Angel of the Church of Philadelphia and Revelation 18:1, his ministry would also fulfill the prophecy of John 10:16—“and there shall be one fold and one shepherd.”) Francis Gumerlock - A Rapture Citation in the Fourteenth Century

* Flagellants [penitents, self-flagellation, millenarians; Флагеллантство, движение «бичующихся»] (XIII-XIV). Flagellants are practitioners of an extreme form of mortification of the flesh by whipping it with various instruments. Most notably, Flagellantism was a 14th-century movement, consisting of radicals in the Catholic Church. It began as a militant pilgrimage and was later condemned by the Catholic Church as heretical. The followers were noted for including public flagellation in their rituals. This was a common practice during the Black Death, or the Great Plague. The first recorded incident was in Central Italy in Perugia, in 1259, the year after severe crop damage and famine throughout Europe. From Perugia the phenomenon seemed to spread across Northern Italy and into Austria. Other incidents are recorded in 1296, 1333-34 (the Doves {>>}), notably at the time of the Black Death (1349), and 1399. The practice peaked during the Black Death. Spontaneously Flagellant groups arose across Northern and Central Europe in 1349, including in England. However, enthusiasm for the movement diminished as suddenly as it arose. When they preached that mere participation in their processions cleaned sins, the Pope banned the movement in January 1261. Initially the Catholic Church tolerated the Flagellants and individual monks and priests joined in the early movements. By the 14th century, the Church was less tolerant and the rapid spread of the movement was alarming. Clement VI officially condemned them in a bull of October 20, 1349 and instructed Church leaders to suppress the Flagellants. This position was reinforced in 1372 by Gregory XI who associated the Flagellants with other heretical groups, notably the Beghards. They were accused of heresies including doubting the need for the sacraments, denying ordinary ecclesiastical jurisdiction and claiming to work miracles. // New Advent - Flagellants. It is in 1260 that we first hear of the Flagellants at Perugia {Perugia is an Italian city and the capital of the Umbria region. Umbria is a region of central Italy.}. The terrible plague of 1259, the long-continued tyranny and anarchy throughout the Italian States, the prophecies concerning Antichrist and the end of the world by Joachim of Flora and his like, had created a mingled state of despair and expectation among the devout lay-folk of the middle and lower classes. (...)  In Germany, about 1360, there appeared one Konrad Schmid, who called himself Enoch, and pretended that all ecclesiastical authority was abrogated, or rather, transferred to himself. (...) In 1261, however, the ecclesiastical and civil authorities awoke to the danger of such an epidemic, although its undesirable tendencies, on this occasion, were rather political than theological. In January the pope forbade the processions, and the laity realized suddenly that behind the movement was no sort of ecclesiastical sanction. It ceased almost as quickly as it had started, and for some time seemed to have died out. Wandering flagellants are heard of in Germany in 1296. In Northern Italy, Venturino of Bergamo, a Dominican, afterwards beatified, attempted to revive the processions of flagellants in 1334, and led about 10,000 men, styled the "Doves", as far as Rome. But he was received with laughter by the Romans, and his followers deserted him. He went to Avignon to see the pope, by whom he was promptly relegated to his monastery, and the movement collapsed. // The Inquisition was active against any revival of the movement in the 15th century. In 1414, two groups, one of them followers of Karl Schmidt, totaling over a hundred members, were burned in Germany. [E22]

* Konrad Schmid [flagellant leader, millenarian; Конрад Шмид] (d 1368) was the leader of a group of flagellants and millenarians in Thuringia. Schmid preached that the millennium would begin in 1369. He had calculated the date from a study of the Book of Revelation, the prophecies of Hildegard of Bingen, the Sibyl, and other sources. Rejection of worldly pleasures and self-flagellation were, according to him, the only way to reconcile oneself with God. He also rejected the sacraments and other teachings, which led him into conflict with the Church. He required his followers to confess to him, allow him to beat them, and follow his will unquestioningly. His movement was closely associated with the Brethren of the Free Spirit, which were also active in the area at the time. In the late 1360s, the inquisitor Walther Kerlinger turned his attention to Thuringia. In 1368, 40 flagellants were arrested in Nordhausen and seven were burned, one of whom appears to have been Schmid. His movement, however, continued for another century. His followers associated Schmid and an associate who died with him with Elijah and Enoch, two "witnesses" who, according to the Book of Revelation, would preach against Antichrist (the Roman Church), be put to death, and rise again. They expected him to return at any moment as both Emperor of the Last Days and divine being. Flagellants continued to be active in the area, and there were burnings in 1414, 1416, 1446, and 1454, in Nordhausen, Sangerhausen, Sonderhausen and elsewhere. [E23]

* Arnaldus de Villa Nova [Arnold of Villanova, physician, religious reformer; Арнольд из Виллановы] (c 1240-1311). Arnaldus de Villa Nova (also called Arnau de Vilanova in Catalan, his language, Arnaldus Villanovanus, Arnaud de Ville-Neuve or Arnaldo de Villanueva) was a physician and a religious reformer. He was also thought to be an alchemist. Influenced by Joachim of Fiore, he claimed that in 1378 the world would end and the Antichrist would come (De adventu Antichristi, 1288). He was condemned by the University of Paris in 1299, accused of heresy, and imprisoned for his ideas of church reform. He was saved through the intervention of Boniface VIII, whom Arnaldus had cured of a painful illness. He was once again imprisoned in Paris around 1304, under pope Benedict XI. The Sorbonne ordered his philosophical works to be burned. Арнольд из Виллановы. Арнольд де Вилланова (также Арна́льд де Виллано́ва, Арна́льд де Вильянуэва, Арнау де Виланова; лат. Arnaldus Villanovanus, исп. Arnaldus de Villanueva, кат. Arnau de Vilanova; ок. 1235—1240, Валенсия — 1311) — испанский врач и алхимик, стоял у колыбели медицинской алхимии, автор «Салернского кодекса здоровья», который считается самым выдающимся произведением Салернской врачебной школы и была написана по канонам того времени в стихах. Автор многочисленных переводов с арабского языка медицинских трактатов античных и арабских авторов. Дал описание ядов, противоядий, лечебных свойств различных растений и способов их употребления.

* Jean de Roquetaillade [Johannes de Rupescissa; Жан де-ла-Роштальяд, Рупесисса] (c 1310-1366/70). Jean de Roquetaillade was a French Franciscan alchemist. After studying philosophy for five years at Toulouse, he entered the Franciscan monastery at Aurillac, where he continued his studies for five years longer. His experiments in distillation led to the discovery of what he termed aqua vitæ {Aqua vitae (Latin for "water of life") or aqua vita is an archaic name for a concentrated aqueous solution of ethanol.}, or usually quinta essentia, and commended as a panacea for all disease. His prophecies and violent denunciation of ecclesiastical abuses brought him into disfavour with his superiors, resulting in his imprisonment in the local Franciscan convents. During a transfer from one convent to another, he was able to reach Avignon and present an appeal before Pope Clement VI in 1349. // Landes: In 1356 the Franciscan John of Roquetaillade (Rupescissa) prophesied that plagues, a revolt by the poor, and the appearance of Antichrists in Rome and Jerusalem would be followed in 1367 by the ascendence of a reforming pope, the election of a king of France as the Holy Roman emperor, and the onset of a millennial reign of peace and prosperity. // Принципы иоахизма в несколько измененной форме встречаются у францисканца Хуана де Пера-Тальяда или Рупесисса, более известного под именем Жана де-ла-Роштальяд. Выдающийся проповедник и миссионер, он нес свое слово от своей родины Каталонии до отдаленной Москвы. Он бичевал пороки Церкви и также толковал пророчества псевдо-Иоахима. Как и спиритуалы, Хуан с любовью переносился мысленно к первоначальным временам святой бедности, на которой до Константина покоились основания веры. Когда в 1349 г. он явился в Авиньон провозгласить свое учение, его не удалось осудить на костер, но его поспешно заключили в тюрьму. Внешним поводом для наказания были его иоахические умозрения относительно антихриста. Мечтания Хуана были однородны с мечтаниями Вечного Евангелия, но оставались в границах католичества. В ноябре 1349 г. он написал в своей тюрьме рассказ о чудесном видении, которого он удостоился в 1345 г. в награду за постоянные молитвы и умерщвление плоти: Людовик Баварский был антихристом, который поработит Европу и Африку в 1336 г., в Азии же явится другой тиран, затем наступит раскол, во время которого будут двое пап. Антихрист будет владычествовать над всей землей и явится много еретических сект. После смерти антихриста последует пятидесятипятилетняя война; евреи будут обращены, и с разрушением королевства антихриста начнется новое тысячелетие. Власть над миром перейдет тогда к обращенным евреям; все будут терциариями францисканского ордена, и францисканец будет образцом святости и нищеты. Еретики укроются в неприступных горах и на морских островах, откуда они поднимутся в конце тысячелетия. Тогда появится второй антихрист, и с ним наступит период долгих страданий, который кончится только тогда, когда небесный огонь поразит и уничтожит его учеников. Затем наступят конец мира и Страшный Суд. В 1356 г. он написал труд, в котором предвещал, что пороки духовенства будут причиной потери всех богатств Церкви; в шесть лет Церковь будет доведена до апостольской нищеты, и около 1370 г. она начнет возвращать себе былое достоинство; все человечество будет тогда подчиняться власти Христа и его представителя на земле. С 1360 по 1365 г. поднимутся земные пресмыкающиеся и уничтожат всех животных и птиц. Бури, потоп, землетрясения, голод, чума и война выметут злых. В 1365 г. появится антихрист, и вероотступников будет так много, что верные будут чрезвычайно редки. Царство антихриста будет непродолжительно. В 1360 г. по 1365 г. папа, избранный согласно с каноническим законом, приведет человечество в христианство, после чего все кардиналы будут избраны в греческой Церкви. Во время этих бедствий францисканцы будут совершенно уничтожены в наказание за несоблюдение устава. Но оставшиеся в живых изменят свой образ жизни, и орден наполнит землю своими учениками. Два францисканца самой смиренной нищеты проведут Церковь через эти бедственные перемены судьбы. До этого же времени Хуан советовал всем, кто желает пережить волнения в природе и в обществе, собрать в горных пещерах богатый запас бобов и меда, соленого мяса и сушеных фруктов. После смерти антихриста начнется тысячелетие. В продолжение семисот лет, т. е. приблизительно до 2000 г. христианской эры, род человеческий будет добродетелен и счастлив; но затем начнется падение. Генри Чарльз Ли - История инквизиции. том 1

* Jacquerie [peasants' revolt, France; Жакерия] (1358). The Jacquerie was a popular revolt by peasants that took place in northern France in the early summer of 1358 during the Hundred Years' War. The revolt was centred in the valley of the Oise north of Paris and was suppressed after a few weeks of violence. This rebellion became known as "the Jacquerie" because the nobles derided peasants as "Jacques" or "Jacques Bonhomme". The word jacquerie became a synonym of peasant uprisings in general in both English and French. Жакерия. Жакери́я (фр. Jacquerie, от распространённого во Франции имени Жак) — антифеодальное восстание французских крестьян в 1358 году, вызванное положением, в котором находилась Франция после начала Столетней войны; крупнейшее в истории Франции крестьянское восстание. Непосредственным поводом к восстанию были разорения, которые произвёл наваррский король Карл Жестокий в окрестностях Парижа и которые особенно тяжело отозвались на сельском населении. Крестьяне, чьих жен и дочерей насиловали дворяне, бросились на них, обратили сотни замков в развалины, избивали дворян и насиловали их собственных жён и дочерей. Скоро восстание распространилось в Бри, Суассоне, Лаоне и на берегах Марны и Уазы. Дворянам удалось подавить восстание.

* Shepherds' Crusade [Crusade of the Pastoreaux, attacks on Jews, clerics, students] (1251). The Shepherds' Crusade of 1251 was a popular crusading movement in northern France aimed at rescuing King Louis IX during the Seventh Crusade. In 1249, Saint Louis IX of France went away on crusade, leaving his mother, Blanche of Castile, as regent during his absence. Louis was defeated and captured in Egypt. When news of this reached France the next year, both nobles and peasants were deeply distressed; the king was well-loved and it was inconceivable to them that such a pious man could be defeated by heathens. Louis sent his brothers to France to get relief, where despite the efforts of Blanche of Castile, it was seen that neither the nobility nor the clergy were helping the king. One of the outpourings of support took the form of a peasant movement in northern France, led by a man known as "the Master of Hungary" (Le Maître de Hongrie). He was apparently a very old Hungarian monk living in France, called Jacob. The Master claimed to have been visited by the Virgin Mary, who instructed him to lead the shepherds (pastoreaux, hence the common name Crusade of the Pastoreaux) of France to the Holy Land to rescue Louis. His followers, said to number 60,000, were mostly young peasants, men, women, and children, from Brabant, Hainaut, Flanders, and Picardy. They followed him to Paris in May, where the Master met with Blanche of Castile. Chronicler Matthew Paris thought he was an impostor, and that he was actually one of the leaders of the Children's Crusade from earlier in the century. Their movement in the city was restricted; they were not allowed to cross to the Left Bank, where the University of Paris was located, as Blanche perhaps feared another disturbance on the scale of the University of Paris strike of 1229. The crowd of shepherds split up after leaving the city. Some of them went to Rouen, where they expelled the archbishop and threw some priests into the Seine river. In Tours they attacked monasteries. The others under the Master arrived in Orléans on June 11. Here they were denounced by the bishop, whom they also attacked, along with other clerics, including Franciscans and Dominicans. They fought with the university students in the city as well, as Blanche might have feared would happen in Paris. Moving on to Amiens and then Bourges, they also began to attack Jews. Blanche responded by ordering the crowds to be rounded up and excommunicated. This was done rather easily as they were simply wandering, directionless, around northern France, but the group led by the Master resisted outside Bourges, and the Master himself was killed in the ensuing skirmish. The crusade seems to have been more of a revolt against the French church and nobility, who were thought to have abandoned Louis; the shepherds, of course, had no idea what happened to Louis, or the logistics involved in undertaking a crusade to rescue him. After being dispersed, some of the participants traveled to Aquitaine and England, where they were forbidden to preach. Others took a true crusade vow and may have actually gone on crusade.

* Crusade of the Poor ["Shepherds' Crusade", attacks on Jews, authorities] (1309). {also called the Shepherds' Crusade; <> People's Crusade} The Crusade of the Poor was an unauthorised military expedition—one of the so-called "popular crusades"—undertaken in the spring and summer of 1309 by members of the lower classes from England, Brabant, northern France and the German Rhineland. Responding to an appeal for support for a crusade to the Holy Land, the men, overwhelmingly poor, marched to join a small professional army being assembled with Papal approval. Along the way, they engaged in looting, persecution of Jews and combat with local authorities. None of them reached the Holy Land and their expedition was ultimately dispersed.

* Shepherds' Crusade [Crusade of the Pastoreaux, attacks on Jews, clerics, whatnot] (1320). The Shepherds' Crusade of 1320 was a popular crusading movement in northern France. Initially aiming to help the Reconquista of Iberia, it failed to gain support from the church or nobility and instead murdered hundreds of Jews in France and Aragon. The causes are complex; however, at that time a wake of famines had set in related to climatic changes (the "little ice age") and the economic situation for the rural poor had deteriorated. Furthermore, there were prophecies and talks about a new crusade. Also, indebtedness to Jewish moneylenders had been apparently eliminated with their eviction by King Philip the Fair in 1306; however, his son Louis X brought them back and became a partner in the recovery of their debts. (...) Instead they marched south to Aquitaine, attacking castles, royal officials, priests, and lepers along the way. Their usual targets, however, were Jews, whom they attacked at Saintes, Verdun-sur-Garonne, Cahors, Albi, and Toulouse, which they reached on June 12. Pope John XXII, in Avignon, gave orders to stop them. When they eventually crossed into Spain, their attacks on the Jews were well-known, and James II of Aragon vowed to protect his citizens. At first they were prohibited from entering the kingdom at all, but when they did enter in July, James warned all his nobles to make sure the Jews were kept safe. As expected the shepherds did attack some Jews, especially at the fortress of Montclus, where over 300 Jews were killed. James's son Alfonso was sent out to bring them under control. Those responsible for the massacre at Montclus were arrested and executed. There were no further incidents and the crusade dispersed. This "crusade" is seen as a revolt against the French monarchy, somewhat like the first Shepherds' Crusade. Jews were seen as a symbol of royal power, as they more than any other population relied on the personal protection of the king both in France and in Aragon, and were often a symbol of the royal economy as well, hated by poor and heavily taxed peasants. Only a few years previously, the Jews had been allowed to return to France, after being expelled in 1306. Any debts owed to the Jews were collected by the monarchy after their expulsion, which probably also contributed to the peasant connection of the Jews with the king. In 1321, King Philip fined those communities in which Jews had been killed. This led to a second revolt, this time among the urban population, although later chroniclers invented the idea of a "cowherds' crusade", a second wave of the Shepherds' Crusade. Although this never occurred, there were, however, more attacks on Jews as a result of the fines. // Landes: The thousands of peasants, or Pastoureaux (“Shepherds”), who swept through the French countryside in 1251 emerged again in 1320, believing they could bring about the Parousia by freeing the Holy Land.

* Peasants' Revolt [Wat Tyler's Rebellion, Great Rising, England; Восстание Уота Тайлера] (1381). The Peasants' Revolt, also named Wat Tyler's Rebellion or the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death pandemic in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War, and instability within the local leadership of London. The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official, John Bampton, in Essex on 30 May 1381. His attempts to collect unpaid poll taxes in Brentwood ended in a violent confrontation, which rapidly spread across the south-east of the country. A wide spectrum of rural society, including many local artisans and village officials, rose up in protest, burning court records and opening the local gaols. The rebels sought a reduction in taxation, an end to the system of unfree labour known as serfdom, and the removal of the King's senior officials and law courts. Inspired by the sermons of the radical cleric John Ball and led by Wat Tyler, a contingent of Kentish rebels advanced on London. (...) Восстание Уота Тайлера. Восста́ние Уо́та Та́йлера — крупное крестьянское восстание 1381 года, охватившее практически всю Англию. Восстание произошло по различным причинам, в том числе из-за политической и экономической напряжённости, особенно обострившейся после эпидемии бубонной чумы 1340-х годов, непомерно высокого роста налогов, собиравшихся для ведения войны с Францией, а также неурегулированности отношений внутри городской власти Лондона. Поводом для начала восстания послужили действия королевского представителя Джона Бамптона в Эссексе 30 мая 1381 года. Его попытка собрать неуплаченный подушный оклад в городе Брентвуд привела к ожесточённому сопротивлению, быстро распространившемуся по юго-востоку страны. Большая часть сельских жителей, в том числе многие местные ремесленники и сельские должностные лица, присоединились к протесту, сжигая судебные записи и освобождая заключённых местных тюрем. Повстанцы добивались снижения налогов, устранения системы крепостного права, смещения с должности главных королевских чиновников и уничтожения судов. Вдохновлённые проповедями радикала-священнослужителя Джона Болла и возглавляемые Уотом Тайлером, кентские повстанцы двинулись на Лондон.

* John Ball [rebel priest, Peasants' Revolt, social equality; Джон Болл] (c 1338-1381). John Ball was an English priest who took a prominent part in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. Although he is often associated with John Wycliffe and the Lollard movement {The Lollards' demands were primarily for reform of Western Christianity.}, Ball was actively preaching 'articles contrary to the faith of the church' at least a decade before Wycliffe started attracting attention.  At that time, England was exhausted by death on a massive scale and crippling taxes; the Black Death was followed by years of war, which had to be paid for. The population was nearly halved by disease and overworked, and onerous flat-rate poll taxes were imposed. Ball was imprisoned in Maidstone, Kent, at the time of the 1381 Revolt. What is recorded of his adult life comes from hostile sources emanating from the religious and political social order. He is said to have gained considerable fame as a roving preacher without a parish or any link to the established order by expounding the doctrines of John Wycliffe, and especially by his insistence on social equality. He delivered radical sermons in many places. Shortly after the Peasants' Revolt began, Ball was released by the Kentish rebels from his prison. He preached to them at Blackheath (the peasants' rendezvous to the south of Greenwich) in an open-air sermon that included the following: "When Adam delved and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman? From the beginning all men by nature were created alike, and our bondage or servitude came in by the unjust oppression of naughty men. For if God would have had any bondmen from the beginning, He would have appointed who should be bond, and who free. And therefore I exhort you to consider that now the time is come, appointed to us by God, in which ye may (if ye will) cast off the yoke of bondage, and recover liberty." When the rebels had dispersed, Ball was taken prisoner at Coventry, given a trial in which, unlike most, he was permitted to speak. He was hanged, drawn and quartered at St Albans in the presence of King Richard II on 15 July 1381. His head was displayed stuck on a pike on London Bridge, and the quarters of his body were displayed at four different towns. Болл, Джон (священник). Джон Болл (англ. John Ball; 1338, Сент-Олбанс, Хартфордшир — 15 июля 1381, Ковентри, Уэст-Мидлендс) — английский священник-лоллард, проповедник социального равенства. Часто считается, что он распространял религиозные доктрины Джона Уиклифа, но Болл был замечен в «проповедовании веры, несогласной с верой Церкви» десятилетием раньше, чем Уиклиф стал известен. В своих проповедях Болл цитировал «Видение Петра Пахаря», поэму его современника Уильяма Лэнгленда. Ряд исследователей полагает, что Лэнгленд действительно мог вдохновляться схожими идеями. // Landes: apocalyptic preacher.

* Joseph Mede [scholar, apocalypticist; Джозеф Мид] (1586-1639). Joseph Mede was an English scholar with a wide range of interests. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow from 1613. He is now remembered as a biblical scholar. His Clavis Apocalyptica (1627 in Latin, English translation 1643, Key of the Revelation Searched and Demonstrated) was a widely influential work on the interpretation of the Book of Revelation. It projected the end of the world by 1716: possibly in 1654. The book also posited that the Jews would be miraculously converted to Christianity before the second coming. Christopher Hill considers that Mede deliberately refrained from publication. His interpretation of the Book of Daniel and The Apostasy of Latter Times were published posthumously. On demons, he explained at least some mental illness as demonic. His collected Works were published in 1665, edited by John Worthington.

* James Ussher [time and date of the creation; Джеймс Ашер] (1581-1656). James Ussher (or Usher) was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland between 1625 and 1656. He was a prolific scholar and church leader, who today is most famous for his identification of the genuine letters of the church father, Ignatius of Antioch, and for his chronology that sought to establish the time and date of the creation as "the entrance of the night preceding the 23rd day of October... the year before Christ 4004"; that is, around 6 pm on 22 October 4004 BC, per the proleptic Julian calendar.

* English Civil War [Cromwell, Puritans, Charles I, Comonwealth republic; Английская революция, Английская гражданская война] (1642-1651). The English Civil War (1642–1651) was a series of civil wars and political machinations between Parliamentarians ("Roundheads") and Royalists ("Cavaliers"), mainly over the manner of England's governance and issues of religious freedom. It was part of the wider Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The first (1642–1646) and second (1648–1649) wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third (1649–1651) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The wars also involved the Scottish Covenanters and Irish Confederates. The war ended with Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. Unlike other civil wars in England, which were mainly fought over who should rule, these conflicts were also concerned with how the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland were to be governed. The outcome was threefold: the trial and execution of Charles I (1649); the exile of his son, Charles II (1651); and the replacement of English monarchy with the Commonwealth of England {republic}, which from 1653 (as the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland) unified the British Isles under the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell (1653–58) and briefly his son Richard (1658–59). The execution of Charles I was particularly notable given that an English king had never been executed before. In England, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship was ended, while in Ireland the victors consolidated the established Protestant Ascendancy. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although the idea of Parliamentary sovereignty was only legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688. // Landes: when an essentially millennial revolution {??} executed a king and attempted to put an end to monarchy for the first time in recorded history. // Commonwealth of England. The Commonwealth was the political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were governed as a republic after the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I. // Execution of Charles I. The execution of Charles I by beheading occurred on Tuesday 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall.

* Roundhead [parliamentarians, apocalyptic factions; Круглоголовые, Раундхеды] (1640s). Roundheads were the supporters of the Parliament of England during the English Civil War (1642–1651). Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against King Charles I of England and his supporters, known as the Cavaliers or Royalists, who claimed rule by absolute monarchy and the principle of the 'divine right of kings' {<>}. The goal of the Roundhead party was to give the Parliament supreme control over executive administration of the country/kingdom. Roundhead political factions included the proto-anarchist Diggers, the diverse group known as the Levellers and the apocalyptic Christian movement of the Fifth Monarchists. Круглоголовые. «Круглоголовые» (Раундхеды, англ. roundheads) — обозначение сторонников Парламента во время Английской революции. Врагами круглоголовых были «кавалеры». Название пришло от короткой стрижки. Отличительной чертой круглоголовых были также красные мундиры. Впервые название «круглоголовых» зафиксировано в 1641. Первоначально их предводителем был граф Эссекс, однако впоследствии роль лидера перешла к Оливеру Кромвелю, который рекрутировал круглоголовых из йоменов графств восточной Англии. Круглоголовые являлись приверженцами кальвинизма и называли себя «людьми духа» и «божьими ратниками». Боевой дух в рядах круглоголовых поднимали религиозные проповедники, носившие чёрные одежды с белыми воротниками. Взгляды. Большинство круглоголовых стремились к конституционной монархии в противовес действовавшему в стране абсолютизма Карла I. Однако в 1649 году общественная антипатия к королю достигла такой степени, что лидерам парламентаристов удалось полностью упразднить монархию и основать Английскую республику. Многие командиры и лидеры круглоголовых (Томас Ферфакс, Эдвард Монтегю[en] и Роберт Деверё) оставались сторонниками конституционной монархии, однако инициатива была перехвачена Оливером Кромвелем и его радикальными сторонниками, создавшими армию новой модели и после победы над Карлом объединившимися с шотландцами для борьбы с парламентом. Многие английские пуритане и пресвитериане поддерживали круглоголовых, как и множество небольших религиозных групп вроде индепендентов. Как круглоголовые, так и кавалеры являлись прихожанами англиканской церкви. Среди круглоголовых были следующие политические фракции: протоанархисты Диггеры, Левеллеры и хилиасты Люди пятой монархии.

* Diggers [True Levellers, 'apostolic socialists'; Диггеры, истинные левеллеры] (1649). The Diggers were a group of Protestant radicals in England, sometimes seen as forerunners of modern anarchism, and also associated with agrarian socialism and Georgism. Gerrard Winstanley's followers were known as True Levellers in 1649 and later became known as Diggers, because of their attempts to farm on common land. Their original name came from their belief in economic equality based upon a specific passage in the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 4:32 NIV The Believers Share Their Possessions 32 All the believers were one in heart and mind. No one claimed that any of their possessions was their own, but they shared everything they had.). The Diggers tried (by "levelling" land) to reform the existing social order with an agrarian lifestyle based on their ideas for the creation of small, egalitarian rural communities. They were one of a number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time. // Georgism, also called in modern times geoism and known historically as the single tax movement, is an economic ideology holding that while people should own the value they produce themselves, the economic rent derived from land, including from all natural resources and the commons, should belong equally to all members of society. Developed from the writings of American economist and social reformer Henry George, the Georgist paradigm seeks solutions to social and ecological problems, based on principles of land rights and public finance which attempt to integrate economic efficiency with social justice. Диггеры (движение в Англии). Диггеры (англ. Diggers, «копатели»), самоназвание — «истинные левеллеры» (англ. True Levellers) — возникшее в 1649 году движение бедных крестьян в годы Английской революции, выступавшее против частной собственности, в первую очередь, против частной собственности на землю. Диггеры действовали относительно мирным путём: они стали вскапывать общинные земли, орудуя лопатами (откуда и появилось название «диггеры» — «копатели»), и призывать других бедняков последовать их примеру. Они рассчитывали привлечь к движению тысячи людей и перейти к новому общественному строю, в котором не было бы частной собственности. Руководителем и идеологом диггеров был Джерард Уинстенли.

* Levellers [radical parliamentarians, equality, individualism; Левеллеры] (1640s). The Levellers were a political movement during the English Civil War (1642–1651) committed to popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. The hallmark of Leveller thought was its populism, as shown by its emphasis on equal natural rights, and their practice of reaching the public through pamphlets, petitions and vocal appeals to the crowd. The Levellers came to prominence at the end of the First English Civil War (1642–46) and were most influential before the start of the Second Civil War (1648–49). Leveller views and support were found in the populace of the City of London and in some regiments in the New Model Army. Their ideas were presented in their manifesto "Agreement of the People". In contrast to the Diggers, the Levellers opposed common ownership, except in cases of mutual agreement of the property owners. From July 1648 to September 1649, they published a newspaper, The Moderate, and were pioneers in the use of petitions and pamphleteering to political ends. After Pride's Purge and the execution of Charles I, power lay in the hands of the Grandees in the Army (and to a lesser extent with the Rump Parliament). The Levellers, along with all other opposition groups, were marginalised by those in power and their influence waned. By 1650, they were no longer a serious threat to the established order. Левеллеры. Ле́веллеры (англ. Levellers — уравнители) — радикальное крыло английских парламентаристов в эпоху Революции, обособившееся к 1647 году от более консервативных индепендентов. Левеллеры были решительными противниками династии Стюартов и аристократии (в лице палаты лордов), защищали неприкосновенность частной собственности, выступали за создание республики, отстаивали идею народного суверенитета, ратовали за предоставление населению широких политических прав и свобод, в том числе проведение ежегодных выборов в палату общин и предоставление избирательных прав всем свободным мужчинам. Левеллеры выражали интересы мелкой буржуазии, ремесленников, части зажиточных крестьян (в основном, фригольдеров), а опирались в основном на армию, однако в итоге были преданы и разгромлены Оливером Кромвелем.

* Fifth Monarchists [apocalypticists, 1666; Люди пятой монархии] (1649-1660). The Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were an extreme Puritan sect active from 1649 to 1660 during the Commonwealth, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century. They took their name from a prophecy in the Book of Daniel that four ancient monarchies (Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman) would precede the kingdom of Christ. They also referred to the year 1666 and its relationship to the biblical Number of the Beast indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings. They were one of a number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time. On 6 January 1661, fifty Fifth Monarchists, headed by a wine-cooper named Thomas Venner, and thought to have been hiding out in Norton Folgate, made an effort to attain possession of London in the name of "King Jesus". Most of the fifty were either killed or taken prisoner, and on 19 and 21 January Venner and ten others were hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason. The failure of Venner's Rising led to repressive legislation to suppress non-conformist sects. Although some physical events such as the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London continued to encourage belief in "the end of the world" ruled by carnal human beings, the doctrine of the sect either died out or became merged in a milder form of Millenarianism. Люди пятой монархии. Люди пятой монархии (люди пятого царства, англ. Fifth Monarchists) — английская секта хилиастов (милленариев), существовавшая во время революции 1640—1660 годов. Она проповедовала наступление «пятой монархии» — тысячелетнего «царства Христа» (после четырёх «земных царств» — Ассиро-Вавилонского, Персидского, Греческого, Римского (в последнее включалась и Европа с начала Средних веков), которое трактовалось как торжество всеобщего равенства и справедливости. Членами этой секты была, в основном, сельская и городская беднота. // Barebone later joined the sect known as the Fifth Monarchists, known for their millenarianism. (Praise-God Barebone)

* Independent [Protestants, congregationalists, separatists, Robert Brown; Индепенденты] (mid XVII). In Welsh and English church history, Independents advocated local congregational control of religious and church matters, without any wider geographical hierarchy, either ecclesiastical or political. Independents reached particular prominence between 1642 and 1660, in the period of the English Civil War and of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, wherein the Parliamentary Army became the champion of Independent religious views against the Anglicanism or the Laudianism {episcopalianists - rule by bishops} of Royalists and the Presbyterianism favoured by Parliament itself. The Independents advocated freedom of religion for non-Catholics. Индепенденты. Индепенденты (от англ. independent, независимый) — приверженцы одного из течений протестантизма в Англии и ряде других стран. Отделились от пуритан в конце XVI века. Индепенденты пользовались значительным влиянием во время Английской революции. Впоследствии они оформились как религиозная община конгрегационалистов. Они стремились к созданию союза независимых общин верующих. Желавших отделиться от разложившейся, по их мнению, церкви Англии протестантов называли также сепаратистами. По мнению индепендентов, не должно быть ни единой национальной церкви, ни всеобщей подати для содержания духовенства, которое должно жить трудами своих рук и добровольными приношениями верующих, общественные школы должны быть лишены церковного характера и доступ к государственным должностям не должен обусловливаться принадлежностью к одному определенному вероисповеданию. Вышедши само из пуританства, индепендентство отринуло церковную организацию кальвинистов, власть пресвитерианских синодов, которые индепенденты считали одним из видов деспотизма, стоящим в одном ряду с деспотизмом папистов и англикан. Духовенства как особого сословия, обладающего особыми правами, иерархически организованного у индепендентов не было: ссылаясь на пример первой христианской общины, они не признавали между мирянами и духовными той разницы, какую признавали другие церкви. В догматическом отношении они примыкали по большей части к кальвинизму, в несколько смягченной форме. Впрочем, среди индепендентов встречалось много различных оттенков, благодаря чему образовалось несколько индепендентских сект (квакеры, левеллеры, милленарии, искатели (seekers), ожидатели (waiters) и другие), от очень умеренных до самых крайних, принимавших иногда сильную социальную окраску. Основателем индепендентства можно считать Роберта Броуна, обнародовавшего в 1582 г. резкий памфлет против англиканской церкви и положившего основание секте броунистов. Название индепендентов (т. е. «независимых») утвердилось в начале XVII века. Так как отделение от государственной церкви рассматривалось тогда как преступление против верховной власти, то вскоре индепенденты стали подвергаться преследованиям, и уже в 1583 году двое из них были казнены за распространение идей Броуна и Гаррисона. В 1593 году той же участи подверглись Гринвуд и Барроу, державшиеся менее крайних воззрений, чем Броун. // Robert Browne [Роберт Броун] (Brownist). Robert Browne (1550s – 1633) was the founder of the Brownists, a common designation for early Separatists from the Church of England before 1620. In later life he was reconciled to the established church and became an Anglican priest. // English Dissenters. English Dissenters or English Separatists were Protestant Christians who separated from the Church of England in the 17th and 18th centuries.

* Puritan millennialism [Пуритане - милленниализм]. Puritan millennialism has been placed in the broader context of European Reformed beliefs about the millennium and interpretation of biblical prophecy, for which representative figures of the period were Johannes Piscator, Thomas Brightman, Joseph Mede, Johannes Heinrich Alsted, and John Amos Comenius. Like most English Protestants of the time, Puritans based their eschatological views on an historicist interpretation of the Book of Revelation and the Book of Daniel. Protestant theologians identified the sequential phases the world must pass through before the Last Judgment could occur and tended to place their own time period near the end. It was expected that tribulation and persecution would increase but eventually the church's enemies—the Antichrist (identified with the Roman Catholic Church) and the Ottoman Empire—would be defeated. Based on Revelation 20, it was believed that a thousand-year period (the millennium) would occur, during which the saints would rule with Christ on earth. In contrast to other Protestants who tended to view eschatology as an explanation for "God's remote plans for the world and man", Puritans understood it to describe "the cosmic environment in which the regenerate soldier of Christ was now to do battle against the power of sin". On a personal level, eschatology was related to sanctification, assurance of salvation, and the conversion experience. On a larger level, eschatology was the lens through which events such as the English Civil War and the Thirty Years' War were interpreted. There was also an optimistic aspect to Puritan millennianism; Puritans anticipated a future worldwide religious revival before the Second Coming of Christ. Another departure from other Protestants was the widespread belief among Puritans that the conversion of the Jews to Christianity was an important sign of the apocalypse. David Brady describes a "lull before the storm" in the early 17th century, in which "reasonably restrained and systematic" Protestant exegesis of the Book of Revelation was seen with Brightman, Mede, and Hugh Broughton, after which "apocalyptic literature became too easily debased" as it became more populist and less scholarly. William Lamont argues that, within the church, the Elizabethan millennial beliefs of John Foxe became sidelined, with Puritans adopting instead the "centrifugal" doctrines of Thomas Brightman, while the Laudians replaced the "centripetal" attitude of Foxe to the "Christian Emperor" by the national and episcopal Church closer to home, with its royal head, as leading the Protestant world iure divino (by divine right). Viggo Norskov Olsen writes that Mede "broke fully away from the Augustinian-Foxian tradition, and is the link between Brightman and the premillennialism of the 17th century". The dam broke in 1641 when the traditional retrospective reverence for Thomas Cranmer and other martyred bishops in the Acts and Monuments was displaced by forward-looking attitudes to prophecy among radical Puritans. (Puritans) // Пуритане. Пурита́не (англ. Puritans, от лат. puritas «чистота») — английские протестанты, не признававшие авторитет официальной церкви, последователи кальвинизма в Англии в XVI—XVII веках. (...) На базовом уровне, современная историография понимает под пуританством разновидность протестантизма, разделяющая основные идеи Мартина Лютера, хотя и с определёнными нюансами в интерпретации. Как и Лютер, основное внимание пуритане уделяли проблеме личного спасения и оправдания через веру. Вместе с основоположниками Реформации пуритане отрицали католическую обрядность и считали Папу римского Антихристом, предсказанным в Откровении Иоанна Богослова. Во-вторых, пуританство тяготело к реформатскому, то есть связанному с именами Кальвина, Буцера, Буллингера и других, богословию, считая лютеранские церкви слишком «папистскими» по своей литургии и организации. Вместо этого пуритане стремились к простоте церковной жизни, опасались иконопочитания и ритуалов. Одновременно с этим, пуритане разделяли взгляды реформатских богословов на безусловное предопределение, избрание и свободу воли. Сложно определить взаимосвязь между пуританами и Церковью Англии.

* Barebone's Parliament [Бербонский парламент]. Barebone's Parliament, also known as the Little Parliament, the Nominated Assembly and the Parliament of Saints, came into being on 4 July 1653, and was the last attempt of the English Commonwealth to find a stable political form before the installation of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. It was an assembly entirely nominated by Oliver Cromwell and the Army's Council of Officers. It acquired its name from the nominee for the City of London, Praise-God Barebone. The Speaker of the House was Francis Rous. The total number of nominees was 140, 129 from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland (see the list of MPs). After conflict and infighting, on 12 December 1653 the members of the assembly voted to dissolve it. It was preceded by the Rump Parliament and succeeded by the First Protectorate Parliament. // Landes: Oliver Cromwell prevented apocalyptic enthusiasm from dominating the Commonwealth by dissolving the so-called “Parliament of Saints.” {??} // Praise-God Barebone [Прейзгод Бербоун] (c 1598-1679). Praise-God Barebone (last name also spelled Barbon or Barbone) was an English leather-seller, preacher and Fifth Monarchist. He is best known for giving his name to the Barebone's Parliament of the English Commonwealth of 1653. (...) Barebone later joined the sect known as the Fifth Monarchists, known for their millenarianism. Прейзгод Бербоун. Прейзгод Бербоун (англ. Praise-God Barebone, «Хвали-Бога Голые-кости», «Хвалибог Бербоун») (ок. 1598—1679) — английский кожевенник, самодеятельный проповедник, сторонник «Пятой Монархии». Известен благодаря своему участию в короткоживущем парламенте Кромвелльского периода английской истории, шутливо называемом «Бербонским парламентом».

* Irvingites [Irvingians, revivalists, Edward Irving, Catholic Apostolic Church; Ирвингиты, ирвингиане]. People involved in the Christian revival started in London by Edward Irving in the 1830s, which later brought forth what is known as the Catholic Apostolic Church Movement. (Category:Irvingites) // Irvingite. Irvingite - a member of the Catholic Apostolic Church, which followed the teachings of Edward Irving (1792–1834), who was originally a minister of the Church of Scotland. // Ирвингиане. Ирвингиа́не — секта, основанная в тридцатых годах XIX в. в Лондоне пресвитерианским проповедником Эдвардом Ирвингом. Самоназвание ирвингиан — апостолы последних дней, католическая апостольская церковь, староапостольская церковь. Эдвард Ирвинг (1792-1834), пастор в Глазго и Лондоне, придя к убеждению о близости конца света, начал проповедовать прихожанам о необходимости восстановления церковного служения в первоначальном виде, в котором проходила служба у первых христиан, включая вещание на «неизвестных языках» и прорицание. Будучи глубоко убеждённым в своей правоте человеком и превосходным оратором, Ирвинг доводил своими проповедями своих слушателей (а особенно слушательниц) нередко до настоящей экзальтации и истерики, сопровождаемой бессвязными восклицаниями и потоками непонятных речей. Эти речи своих слушателей Ирвинг отождествлял с теми "странными глаголами", о которых говорится в книге Деяний (II, 4), а также с пророчествами, описываемыми в Библии. Исходя из данных фактов Ирвинг окончательно убедился в правильности совершаемых им действий, которые, к тому же, были подкреплены рядом случившихся, во время проповедей, якобы «исцелений». В дальнейшем Ирвинг, убеждённый в том, что именно через него общине предопределено возродиться истинной церкви по подобию апостольской церкви, он, по возможности, старался наиболее точно воспроизвести апостольскую церковь со всеми её учреждениями и чинами, изображенными в Библии и в Апокалипсисе, а именно ангелами, апостолами, евангелистами, пророками и учителями. Его последователи свято верили в его учение об излиянии среди них Святого Духа и беспрекословно повиновались во всем своему учителю. В скором времени в Лондоне образовалось семь церквей, или приходов, ирвингиан. В последующем, последователи Ирвинга, подробно изучив результаты археологических и письменных исследований, по возможности полно установили в своей секте чин и последовательность древней литургии.

* Catholic Apostolic Church [Irvingian Church; Католическая апостольская церковь]. The Catholic Apostolic Church, also known as the Irvingian Church, is a Christian religious tradition which originated in Scotland around 1831 and later spread to Germany and the United States. The tradition to which the Catholic Apostolic Church belongs is referred to as Irvingism or the Irvingian movement, in honour of Edward Irving (1792–1834), who taught that "God could work miracles in His Church as easily now as two thousand years ago" {revivalism: "living church"}. The church was organised in 1835 with the fourfold ministry of "apostles, prophets, evangelists, and pastors". As a result of schism within the Catholic Apostolic Church, other Irvingian Christian denominations emerged, including the Old Apostolic Church, New Apostolic Church, Reformed Old Apostolic Church and United Apostolic Church; of these, the New Apostolic Church is the largest Irvingian Christian denomination today, with 16 million members. Irvingianism teaches three sacraments: Baptism, Holy Communion and Holy Sealing. // Irvingians/Irvingism, an “eschatological community” associated with the Scottish revival preacher E. Irving, also called the Catholic Apostolic Church. It originated in five “prophetic conferences” on the estate of H. Drummond in Albury near Guildford (1826–1830). On the basis of intensive Bible study, the participants interpreted the political and religious crises of the time as an expression of eschatological turmoil. Brill - Irvingians/Irvingism

* Christadelphians ['resurrected millennialists'; Христадельфиане]. The Christadelphians (or Christadelphianism) are a restorationistic and millenarian Christian group who hold a view of Biblical Unitarianism. Claiming to base their beliefs solely on the Bible, Christadelphians differ from mainstream Christianity in a number of doctrinal areas. For example, they reject the Trinity and the immortality of the soul, believing these to be corruptions of original Christian teaching. Christadelphians believe that people are separated from God because of their sins but that humankind can be reconciled to him by becoming disciples of Jesus Christ. This is by belief in the gospel, through repentance, and through baptism by total immersion in water. They reject assurance of salvation, believing instead that salvation comes as a result of remaining "in Christ". After death, believers are in a state of non-existence, knowing nothing until the Resurrection at the return of Christ. Following the judgement at that time, the accepted receive the gift of immortality, and live with Christ on a restored Earth, assisting him to establish the Kingdom of God and to rule over the mortal population for a thousand years (the Millennium). Christadelphians believe that the Kingdom will be centred upon Israel, but Jesus Christ will also reign over all the other nations on the Earth. Some unorthodox Christadelphians believe that the Kingdom itself is not worldwide but limited to the land of Israel promised to Abraham and ruled over in the past by David, with a worldwide empire. // Biblical Unitarianism. Biblical Unitarianism encompasses the key doctrines of Nontrinitarian Christians who affirm the Bible as their sole authority, and from it base their beliefs that God the Father is a singular being, the only one God, and that Jesus Christ is God’s son, but not divine. The term "biblical Unitarianism" is connected first with Robert Spears and Samuel Sharpe of the Christian Life magazine in the 1880s. Христадельфиане. Христадельфиане (с древнегреческого «братья во Христе» или «Христовы братья») христианская унитарная конфессия, сформировавшаяся в XIX столетии в Великобритании и США. Фактически, в своем создании и развитии ориентируется на ряд раннехристианских течений. Основателем считается доктор Джон Томас (англ. John Thomas). Последователи данной деноминации существуют по всему миру, составляя собрания и общины, называемые «экклесиями» (с греч. Собрания). Единого координационного центра не имеют. // 'Resurrected millennialists': believe they will rule with Christ after the resurrection.

* Pietism [Pietistic Lutheranism; Пиетизм]. Pietism, also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life. Пиетизм. Пиети́зм (лат. Pietismus) — изначально движение внутри лютеранской и реформатской церквей, характеризующееся приданием особой значимости личному благочестию, религиозным переживаниям верующих, ощущению живого общения с Богом, а также ощущению постоянного нахождения под строгим и бдительным «Божьим оком». Пиетизм возник как реакция на духовное охлаждение в церквях, и во время своего возникновения (XVII век) противопоставлялся лютеранской ортодоксии, акцент в которой делался на догматику, которая далеко не всегда была понятна прихожанам. Поскольку пиетисты не придавали большого значения догматике, то имело место взаимное влияние на аналогичные движения внутри других протестантских конфессий, вследствие чего термин «пиетизм» употребляется и применительно к не связанным с лютеранством деноминациям и религиозным группам.

* Radical Pietism [independent from Lutheranism; Радикальный Пиетизм]. Radical Pietism are Pietists who decided to break with denominational Lutheranism, forming separate Christian churches. Radical Pietists contrast with Church Pietists, who chose to remain within their Lutheran denominational settings. Radical Pietists distinguished between true and false Christianity (usually represented by established churches), which led to their separation from these entities. Pietism emphasized the need for a "religion of the heart" instead of the head, and was characterized by ethical purity, inward devotion, charity, asceticism, and mysticism. Leadership was empathetic to adherents instead of being strident loyalists to sacramentalism {i.e. sacerdotalism ??}. The Pietistic movement was birthed in Germany through spiritual pioneers who wanted a deeper emotional experience rather than a preset adherence to form (no matter how genuine). They stressed a personal experience of salvation and a continuous openness to new spiritual illumination {i.e. direct contact with the Holy Spirit (??)}. Many of the Radical Pietists were influenced by the writings of Jakob Böhme, Gottfried Arnold, and Philipp Jakob Spener, among others. They taught that personal holiness (piety), spiritual maturity, Bible study, prayer, and fasting were essential towards "feeling the effects" of grace. // Radical Pietism owes much to anabaptists, spiritualists and mystics of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and is particularly indebted to Jakob Boehme. Prominent among the elements of his theosophy which Radicals accepted was his speculation concerning the fall of man, according to which Adam was created androgynous, with an immortal, paradisiacal body. With his will he desired the earthly principle, and lost his heavenly form. The "heavenly Wisdom" (Sophia) had been his "wife," but as a result of this Urfall, Eve was created. Thus the division of the sexes and "animal" reproduction were seen to be consequences of the fall. Through faith in Christ man may turn his will back to God, be reborn, and begin to acquire again the angelical powers he had lost. Boehme opposed the doctrines of imputed righteousness and predestination. The church which trusts in mere human reason and opinion, and persecutes others, is "Babel." The true Christian has his church within himself, and the true church is invisible and universal. Heathen of good will may be saved. God continues to reveal natural and spiritual secrets to the initiates. A golden "lily-time" is approaching. These elements were further developed by radical Pietism.  (...) J.G. Glichtel demanded celibacy as a prerequisite to union with the heavenly Sophia. His followers, called "Engelbruder," interceded for others as a "Melchizedekian priesthood." J.W. Petersen and his wife publicized the doctrine of the restoration of all things (Universalism), and aroused interest in an imminent coming of the "Philadelphian" church,, and the millennial kingdom. Gottfried Arnold's church histories pictured the fall of the church from apostolic purity and the heretics as better Christians than their persecutors. (...) They believed that God would soon establish a universal, non-sectarian, invisible "Philadelphian" church. In this they followed the ideal of the English Philadelphians, and established similar societies in Germany for an unsectarian fellowship among those of like expectations. (...) The main source of tension within the radical Pietist movement was between these two opposing church ideals: the separatist {i.e. separated from the established church} or "philadelphian," and the sectarian. Boehmist Sophia-mysticism was carried by the "Gichtelianer" to the extreme of demanding celibacy, but most Radicals agreed with Hochmann that there could be a Christian marriage, though a "spiritual" one was a higher type, and marriage to the "Lamb" was the highest. Sophia-mysticism likewise involved an interest in the revelation of natural "secrets" in alchemy and medicine. Quietism discouraged this, as well as any emphasis on the feelings and "enthusiasm." (...) They avoided trinitarian formulations, and allowed that heathen could be saved by following their "inner light." (..) Belief in a state of purification after death, the universal restoration of all souls (the Wiederbringung), and a spiritualized eschatology were developed from Boehmism. The state-church legal relationship was not approved. Rulers were held to be competent only in the realm of nature, and not in that of grace. Radical Pietists commonly refused to take the oath {of allegiance ??} or perform military service. Some groups practiced community of goods, like the apostolic church. Coming largely from the lower classes, they helped break down social barriers. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Boston University - Radical German Pietism (c. 1675-c. 1760)

* Daniel Whitby [postmillennialism; Дэниел Уитби] (1638–1726). Daniel Whitby was a controversial English theologian and biblical commentator. An Arminian priest in the Church of England, Whitby was known as strongly anti-Calvinistic and later gave evidence of Unitarian tendencies. Whitby is considered by many to have systematised postmillennialism, even if seeds of this millennialist belief were sown long before with persons such as Augustine. Although Whitby may have been an Arminian minister, postmillennialism is now commonly associated with Calvinist and Covenantal churches, specifically Reconstructionist churches. Clarence Larkin wrote: "...a new interpretation of the Millennial Reign of Christ was demanded. This interpretation was furnished by the Rev. Daniel Whitby (1638–1726), a clergyman of the Church of England, who claimed that in reading the promises made to the Jews in the Old Testament of their restoration as a nation, and the re-establishment of the Throne of David, he was led to see that these promises were spiritual and applied to the Church. This view he called a 'New Hypothesis.'... "His 'New Hypothesis' was that by the preaching of the Gospel Mohammedanism would be overthrown, the Jews converted, the Papal Church with the Pope (Antichrist) would be destroyed, and there would follow a 1000 years of righteousness and peace known as the Millennium; at the close of which there would be a short period of Apostasy, ending in the return of Christ." // Arminianism in the Church of England. Arminianism was a controversial theological position within the Church of England particularly evident in the second quarter of the 17th century (the reign of Charles I of England). A key element was the rejection of predestination. The Puritans fought against Arminianism, but it was supported by kings James I and Charles I, leading to deep political battles.

* Great Awakening [revivalism; Великое пробуждение, Ривайвелизм]. The Great Awakening refers to a number of periods of religious revival in American Christian history. Historians and theologians identify three, or sometimes four, waves of increased religious enthusiasm between the early 18th century and the late 20th century. Each of these "Great Awakenings" was characterized by widespread revivals led by evangelical Protestant ministers, a sharp increase of interest in religion, a profound sense of conviction and redemption on the part of those affected, an increase in evangelical church membership, and the formation of new religious movements and denominations. The Awakenings all resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of personal guilt, their sin, and the need of salvation by Christ. Some of the influential people during the Great Awakening were George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, and Gilbert Tennent, and some of the influential groups during the Great Awakening were the New Lights and the Old Lights. Pulling away from ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made religion intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction of personal sin and need for redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality. It incited rancor and division between old traditionalists who insisted on the continuing importance of ritual and doctrine, and the new revivalists, who encouraged emotional involvement and personal commitment. It had a major impact in reshaping the Congregational church, the Presbyterian church, the Dutch Reformed Church, and the German Reformed denomination, and strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist denominations. It had little impact on Anglicans and Quakers. Unlike the Second Great Awakening, which began about 1800 and reached out to the unchurched, the First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members. It changed their rituals, their piety, and their self-awareness. Ривайвелизм. Ривайвели́зм (англ. revival «возрождение, пробуждение») — движение в протестантизме, возникшее в XVIII веке в ответ на превращение христианства в официальное моральное учение. Главной особенностью ривайвелизма является акцент на переживании личной встречи с Богом и приближающемся Втором пришествии Иисуса Христа. Ривайвелисты первоначально не имели организации и представляли собой стихийные молитвенные группы и кружки по изучению Библии, в которых ведущая роль принадлежала харизматическим лидерам и странствующим проповедникам. Церковные обряды и священническая иерархия при этом отходили на второй план или вовсе переставали иметь значение. Ривайвелизм развивался в виде четырех последовательных взаимосвязанных течений: 1) Первое Великое пробуждение (1730−40) в Новой Англии; 2) Второе Великое пробуждение (1787−1860) в США в среде конгрегационалистов, пресвитериан, баптистов и методистов; 3) Период начала XX века, связанный со служением миссионеров-евангелистов; 4) Вторая половина XX века, в ходе которого миссионерская деятельность стала опираться на крупные церкви и миссии с использованием средств массовой информации. Наиболее известные представители: Д. Эдвардс, Ч. Финней, Д. Муди, Р. Торрей. // Old and New Lights. The terms Old Lights and New Lights (among others) are used in Protestant Christian circles to distinguish between two groups who were initially the same, but have come to a disagreement. These terms have been applied in a wide variety of ways, and the meaning must be determined from each context. Typically, if a denomination is changing, and some refuse to change, and the denomination splits, those who did not change are referred to as the "Old Lights" and the ones who changed are referred to as the "New Lights".

* First Great Awakening [revivalism; Первое великое пробуждение, Великое пробуждение] (1730-1750). The First Great Awakening (sometimes Great Awakening) or the Evangelical Revival was a series of Christian revivals that swept Britain and its thirteen North American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The revival movement permanently affected Protestantism as adherents strove to renew individual piety and religious devotion. The Great Awakening marked the emergence of Anglo-American evangelicalism as a trans-denominational movement within the Protestant churches. In the United States, the term Great Awakening is most often used, while in the United Kingdom the movement is referred to as the Evangelical Revival. While the Evangelical Revival united evangelicals across various denominations around shared beliefs, it also led to division in existing churches between those who supported the revivals and those who did not. Opponents accused the revivals of fostering disorder and fanaticism within the churches by enabling uneducated, itinerant preachers and encouraging religious enthusiasm.  Великое пробуждение. Великое пробуждение (англ. Great Awakening) или Первое великое пробуждение (англ. First Great Awakening) — религиозное движение, охватившее Новую Англию во 2-й четверти XVIII века. В континентальной Европе ему соответствует квиетизм, на Британских островах — евангелизм и методизм. Великое пробуждение захватило в основном различные деноминации кальвинистского учения. Конгрегационалисты, пресвитериане, баптисты, голландские кальвинисты (реформаты), некоторые англикане — все были недовольны сухим рационализмом установившейся в Новой Англии религиозной практики. Как многим казалось, в колониях возобладал формальный подход к молитве, а миссионерской деятельностью среди индейцев и вовсе пренебрегли. Во главе Великого пробуждения стал конгрегационалистский пастор из Нортгемптона, Джонатан Эдвардс, который был сторонником кальвинистского богословия. Он горячо защищал учение о двойном предопределении (Еф. 1:4, 5, 11, 19; 2:4–10, Ин. 15:16, Деян. 13:48) и проповедовал спасение «только верой в Иисуса Христа» (Гал. 2:16). Против экзальтированных проявлений «вздорного чувства» выступили другие кальвинисты — англикане-консерваторы во главе с бостонским пастором Чарлзом Чонси. В результате этой полемики многие общины раскололись на «старосветников» и «новосветников». В 1739—1740 гг. много шума наделало путешествие по колониям одного из основоположников методизма Джорджа Уайтфилда, который также придерживался кальвинистского богословия. Он доводил слушателей своими проповедями до подлинного исступления. Поскольку ни одна церковь не могла вместить желающих вкусить его слов, Уитфилд проповедовал в открытом поле. Подобно Эдвардсу, он предостерегал против соблазнов вольнодумства. Следствием всплеска религиозного чувства в колониях стало отвержение атеистических сторон европейского Просвещения. Для проповеди своих мнений «новосветники» учредили несколько учебных заведений, из которых впоследствии выросли Дартмутский колледж и Принстонский университет.

* Second Great Awakening [revivalism; Второе Великое пробуждение] (XVIII/XIX). The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant religious revival during the early 19th century in the United States. The Second Great Awakening, which spread religion through revivals and emotional preaching, sparked a number of reform movements. Revivals were a key part of the movement and attracted hundreds of converts to new Protestant denominations. The Methodist Church used circuit riders to reach people in frontier locations. The Second Great Awakening led to a period of antebellum social reform and an emphasis on salvation by institutions. The outpouring of religious fervor and revival began in Kentucky and Tennessee in the 1790s and early 1800s among the Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists. The awakening brought comfort in the face of uncertainty as a result of the socio-political changes in America. It led to the founding of several well known colleges, seminaries and mission societies. The Great Awakening notably altered the religious climate in the American colonies. Ordinary people were encouraged to make a personal connection with God, instead of relying on a minister. Newer denominations, such as Methodists and Baptists, grew quickly. While the movement unified the colonies and boosted church growth, experts say[which?] it also caused division between those who supported it and those who rejected it. Historians named the Second Great Awakening in the context of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1750s and of the Third Great Awakening of the late 1850s to early 1900s. The Second and Third Awakenings were part of a much larger Romantic religious movement that was sweeping across England, Scotland, and Germany. New religious movements emerged during the Second Great Awakening, such as Adventism, Dispensationalism, and the Latter Day Saint movement. // Second Great Awakening. The Second Great Awakening (sometimes known simply as "the Great Awakening") was a religious revival that occurred in the United States beginning in the late eighteenth century and lasting until the middle of the nineteenth century. While it occurred in all parts of the United States, it was especially strong in the Northeast and the Midwest. This awakening was unique in that it moved beyond the educated elite of New England to those who were less wealthy and less educated. The center of revivalism was the so-called Burned-over district in western New York. Named for its overabundance of hellfire-and-damnation preaching, the region produced dozens of new denominations, communal societies, and reform. Among these dozens of new denominations were free black churches, run independently of existing congregations that were predominantly of white attendance. During the period between the American revolution and the 1850s, black involvement in largely white churches declined in great numbers, with participation becoming almost non-existent by the 1840s–1850s; some scholars argue that this was largely due to racial discrimination within the church. This discrimination came in the form of segregated seating and the forbiddance of African Americans from voting in church matters or holding leadership positions in many white churches. Reverend Richard Allen, a central founder of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, was quoted describing one such incident of racial discrimination in a predominantly white church in Philadelphia, in which fellow preacher and a former slave from Delaware Absalom Jones was forcefully told to leave and grabbed by a white church trustee in the midst of prayer. Closely related to the Second Great Awakening were other reform movements such as temperance, abolition, and women's rights. The temperance movement encouraged people to abstain from consuming alcoholic drinks in order to preserve family order. The abolition movement fought to abolish slavery in the United States. The women's rights movement grew from female abolitionists who realized that they too could fight for their own political rights. In addition to these causes, reforms touched nearly every aspect of daily life, such as restricting the use of tobacco and dietary and dress reforms. The abolition movement emerged in the North from the wider Second Great Awakening 1800–1840.

* Third Great Awakening ['Третье великое пробуждение'] (XIX/XX). The Third Great Awakening refers to a historical period proposed by William G. McLoughlin that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century. It influenced pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism. It gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness movement and Nazarene and Pentecostal movements, and also Jehovah's Witnesses, Spiritualism, Theosophy, Thelema, and Christian Science. The era saw the adoption of a number of moral causes, such as the abolition of slavery and prohibition. (Kenneth Scott Latourette disputed the thesis that the United States had a Third Great Awakening.)

* 1904–1905 Welsh revival [Уэльское/Валлийское пробуждение]. The 1904–1905 Welsh revival was the largest Christian revival in Wales during the 20th century. It was one of the most dramatic in terms of its effect on the population, and triggered revivals in several other countries. "The movement kept the churches of Wales filled for many years to come, seats being placed in the aisles in Mount Pleasant Baptist Church in Swansea for twenty years or so, for example. Meanwhile, the Awakening swept the rest of Britain, Scandinavia, parts of Europe, North America, the mission fields of India and the Orient, Africa and Latin America." (...) Role of newspapers. For the first time, the newspapers had a role in this revival. The Western Mail and the South Wales Daily News, Wales' daily newspapers, spread news of conversions and generated an air of excitement that helped to fuel the revival. (...) Unlike earlier religious revivals based on powerful preaching, the revival of 1904–05 relied primarily on music and on alleged supernatural phenomena as exemplified by the visions of Evan Roberts. The intellectual emphasis of the earlier revivals had left a dearth of religious imagery that the visions supplied. The visions also challenged the denial of the spiritual and miraculous element of Scripture by opponents of the revival, who held liberal and critical theological positions. The structure and content of the visions not only repeated those of Scripture and earlier Christian mystical tradition but also illuminated the personal and social tensions that the revival addressed by juxtaposing Biblical images with scenes familiar to contemporary Welsh believers. // I’m also a journalist, although I happen to believe in God and was helped to overcome Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder through a near-death experience which felt like an experience of grace. So I'm more open to the value of ecstatic experiences. But there are aspects of charismatic Christianity that I find off-putting. When an entire church gets ‘slain’ by the Holy Spirit, when people fall over, roll around on the ground, bark like dogs and so on, is it a visitation by God, an outbreak of mass hysteria, or some kind of learned cultural practice? When it comes to Welsh religious revivals, Welsh Christians think of them as both a supernatural experience and a learned cultural practice. They are very aware of the history of Welsh revivals, and this knowledge creates expectations of future revivals. Wales is known as ‘the land of revivals’ - previous revivals include a Methodist revival in 1735, when congregations would shake, weep, faint and jump for joy, and a cross-denominational revival in 1859, when historians suggest 100,000 people - a tenth of the population of Wales - converted, and services were so ecstatic that ‘people were carried out of chapel unable to move hand or foot’. Both revivals were intensely musical - hymn-singing plays a central role in Celtic ecstasy. (...) A journalist who covered the revival, WT Stead, was struck by the unplanned spontaneity of the services, though in other ways, the scenes closely followed the cultural script of previous Welsh revivals - melted hearts, tears, joy, fainting, spontaneous hymn-singing, public confessions, testimonials, mass conversions, the sense of ‘a country aflame’. (...) Then, after a year or so, Roberts became more and more exhausted and erratic. He would dramatically stop the singing during the services, declaring there were obstacles to the Holy Spirit’s visitation {shamanism}, naming people in the congregation who were obstacles, including priests. He emphasized there must be total obedience to the Holy Spirit among everyone present. He became uncertain about when it was the Holy Spirit prompting him to speak, or the Devil. He eventually retired from public life, publishing a book six years later warning of the {<> what exactly is the connection here ??} rapid approach of the Apocalypse. Jules Evans - The Welsh revival: mass hysteria or outpouring of grace?

* Social Gospel [Социальный евангелизм] (early XX). The Social Gospel was a social movement within Protestantism that applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, lack of unionization, poor schools, and the dangers of war. It was most prominent in the early-20th-century United States and Canada. Theologically, the Social Gospelers sought to put into practice the Lord's Prayer (Matthew 6:10): "Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven". They typically were postmillennialist; that is, they believed the Second Coming could not happen until humankind rid itself of social evils by human effort. The Social Gospel was more popular among clergy than laity. Its leaders were predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the progressive movement, and most were theologically liberal, although a few were also conservative when it came to their views on social issues. Important leaders included Richard T. Ely, Josiah Strong, Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch.

* Jonathan Edwards [theologian, New England theology]. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) was an American revivalist preacher, philosopher, and Congregationalist Protestant theologian. Edwards is widely regarded as one of America's most important and original philosophical theologians. Edwards' theological work is broad in scope, but rooted in the pedobaptist Puritan heritage as exemplified in the Westminster and Savoy Confessions of Faith. Recent studies have emphasized how thoroughly Edwards grounded his life's work on conceptions of beauty, harmony, and ethical fittingness, and how central The Enlightenment was to his mindset. Edwards played a critical role in shaping the First Great Awakening, and oversaw some of the first revivals in 1733–35 at his church in Northampton, Massachusetts. His theological work gave rise to a distinct school of theology known as the New England theology. // The present study addresses the less-well-known subject of Jonathan Edwards’s millennialism from his redemptive-historical vision. By situating him in the Reformation and post-Reformation contexts, taking into considerations of his interaction with the intellectual challenges posed by some of the Enlightenment thinkers, this study attempts to provide a more nuanced and extensive investigation of Edwards’s anticipation of the millennium. To put them in a nutshell, as a typical example of a dramatic paradigm shift in millennialism for the period between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, what Edwards expected was neither a political nor America-centric utopia as some scholars presented. Conversely, his vision of the millennium is a Christ-reigning, Judeo-centric and cosmic kingdom arriving on earth in distant future. As indispensable parts of Edwards’s theological system, the less-known facts of the Christological, Judeo-centric and cosmic nature of Edwards’s millennialism in Edwardsean scholarship highlight the greatness of God’s divine sovereignty, the magnificence of His glory as well as the capaciousness of His kingdom. This millennial vision departed significantly from the Reformed tradition in certain ways. In particular, while some of his Protestant predecessors and Puritan contemporaries tended to centralize, or even sacralize their present time and nations, Edwards decentralized England and New England in terms of time, space and people. Zhu, Xinping - Jonathan Edwards’s Judeo-centric and cosmic vision of the Millennial Kingdom // Such a view was incompatible with Edwards' cosmic optimism. His millennium was an earthly paradise, brought on neither by the personal appearance of Christ nor a cataclysm, but as the culminating stage in the progressive march of history. In de-emphasizing the catastrophic elements of the millennium, and by drawing it into the stream of history, Edwards moved Calvinist thought a considerable distance toward a complete gradualism. (...) Apocalyptic ideas, long a part of the Puritan tradition, became with Jonathan Edwards the guarantee of secular and religious progress. The prophecies no longer foretold of great battles with the hosts of Antichrist, nor catastrophies, nor impending doom, but of a great onward and upward movement toward the golden age. William Charles Eamon - Kingdom and church in New England; Puritan eschatology from John Cotton to Jonathan Edwards (PDF)

* William Miller [preacher, Millerism, Adventism] (1782-1849). William Miller was an American Baptist preacher who is credited with beginning the mid-19th-century North American religious movement known as Millerism. After his proclamation of the Second Coming did not occur as expected in the 1840s, new heirs of his message emerged, including the Advent Christians (1860), the Seventh-day Adventists (1863) and other Adventist movements. (...) Shortly after his move to Poultney, Miller rejected his Baptist heritage and became a Deist. In his biography Miller records his conversion: "I became acquainted with the principal men in that village [Poultney, Vermont], who were professedly Deists; but they were good citizens, and of a moral and serious deportment. They put into my hands the works of Voltaire, [David] Hume, Thomas Paine, Ethan Allen, and other deistical writers." (...) Soon after his return to Low Hampton, Miller took tentative steps towards regaining his Baptist faith. At first he attempted to combine both, publicly espousing Deism while simultaneously attending his local Baptist church. His attendance turned to participation when he was asked to read the day's sermon during one of the local minister's frequent absences. His participation changed to commitment one Sunday when he was reading a sermon on the duties of parents and became choked with emotion. (...) Following his conversion, Miller's Deist friends soon challenged him to justify his newfound faith. He did so by examining the Bible closely, declaring to one friend "If he would give me time, I would harmonize all these apparent contradictions to my own satisfaction, or I will be a Deist still." Miller commenced with Genesis 1:1, studying each verse and not moving on until he felt the meaning was clear. In this way he became convinced firstly, that postmillennialism was unbiblical; and secondly, that the time of Christ's Second Coming was revealed in Bible prophecy. Basing his calculations principally on Daniel 8:14: "Unto two thousand and three hundred days; then shall the sanctuary be cleansed", Miller assumed that the cleansing of the sanctuary represented the Earth's purification by fire at Christ's Second Coming. Then, using the interpretive principle of the "day-year principle", Miller (and others) interpreted a day in prophecy to read not as a 24-hour period, but rather as a calendar year. Further, Miller became convinced that the 2,300 day period started in 457 BC with the decree to rebuild Jerusalem by Artaxerxes I of Persia. Simple calculation then revealed that this period would end in 1843. Miller records, "I was thus brought... to the solemn conclusion, that in about twenty-five years from that time 1818 all the affairs of our present state would be wound up." (...) In 1832 Miller submitted a series of sixteen articles to the Vermont Telegraph, a Baptist newspaper. The Telegraph published the first of these on May 15, and Miller writes of the public's response: "I began to be flooded with letters of inquiry respecting my views; and visitors flocked to converse with me on the subject."[2] In 1834, unable to personally comply with many of the urgent requests for information and the invitations to travel and preach that he received, Miller published a synopsis of his teachings in a 64-page tract with the lengthy title: Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ, about the Year 1844: Exhibited in a Course of Lectures. (...) From 1840 onwards, Millerism was transformed from an "obscure, regional movement into a national campaign." (...) Despite the urging of his supporters, Miller never personally set an exact date for the expected Second Advent. However, in response to their urgings, he did narrow the time-period to sometime in the Jewish year beginning in the Gregorian year 1843, stating: "My principles in brief, are, that Jesus Christ will come again to this earth, cleanse, purify, and take possession of the same, with all the saints, sometime between March 21, 1843, and March 21, 1844." March 21, 1844, passed without incident, and further discussion and study resulted in the brief adoption of a new date (April 18, 1844) based on the Karaite Jewish calendar (as opposed to the Rabbinic calendar). Like the previous date, April 18 passed without Christ's return. Miller responded publicly, writing, "I confess my error, and acknowledge my disappointment; yet I still believe that the day of the Lord is near, even at the door." In August 1844 at a camp-meeting in Exeter, New Hampshire, Samuel S. Snow presented a message that became known as the "seventh-month" message or the "true midnight cry." In a discussion based on scriptural typology, Snow presented his conclusion (still based on the 2300 day prophecy in Daniel 8:14), that Christ would return on, "the tenth day of the seventh month of the present year, 1844."[19] Again, based largely on the calendar of the Karaite Jews, this date was determined to be October 22, 1844. The Great Disappointment. After the failure of Miller's expectations for October 22, 1844, the date became known as the Millerites' Great Disappointment. Hiram Edson recorded that "Our fondest hopes and expectations were blasted, and such a spirit of weeping came over us as I never experienced before... We wept, and wept, till the day dawn." Following the Great Disappointment most Millerites simply gave up their beliefs. Some did not and viewpoints and explanations proliferated. Miller initially seems to have thought that Christ's Second Coming was still going to take place—that "the year of expectation was according to prophecy; but...that there might be an error in Bible chronology, which was of human origin, that could throw the date off somewhat and account for the discrepancy." Miller never gave up his belief in the Second Coming of Christ. Estimates of Miller's followers—the Millerites—vary between 50,000, and 500,000. Miller's legacy includes the Advent Christian Church with 61,000 members, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church with over 19 million members. Both these denominations have a direct connection with the Millerites and the Great Disappointment of 1844. A number of other individuals with ties to the Millerites founded various short-lived groups. These include Clorinda S. Minor, who led a group of seven to Palestine to prepare for Christ's second coming at a later date. Miller died on December 20, 1849, still convinced that the Second Coming was imminent.

* Adventism [Адвентизм] (183x). Adventism is a branch of Protestant Christianity that believes in the imminent Second Coming (or "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ. It originated in the 1830s in the United States during the Second Great Awakening when Baptist preacher William Miller first publicly shared his belief that the Second Coming would occur at some point between 1843 and 1844. His followers became known as Millerites. After the Great Disappointment, the Millerite movement split up and was continued by a number of groups that held different doctrines from one another. These groups, stemming from a common Millerite ancestor, became known collectively as the Adventist movement. Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state of the dead is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth. The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible, leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the seventh day Sabbath {observed from Friday evening to Saturday evening (Sabbath in seventh-day churches)}. Адвентизм. Адвенти́зм (лат. adventus — пришествие) — религиозное движение, зародившееся в начале XIX века среди групп баптистов, методистов и других протестантов. Поначалу движение объединяло тех христиан различных вероисповеданий, которые ожидали скорого Второго пришествия Христа. // Adventists [Адвентисты]. Seventh-day Adventist Church.

* Samuel Hanson Cox. Samuel Hanson Cox (August 25, 1793 – October 2, 1880) was an American Presbyterian minister and a leading abolitionist.

* John Nelson Darby [pre-tribulational, dispensational premillennialism, futurism, literalism, apocalypticism] (1800-1882). John Nelson Darby was an Anglo-Irish Bible teacher, one of the influential figures among the original Plymouth Brethren and the founder of the Exclusive Brethren. He is considered to be the father of modern Dispensationalism and Futurism. Pre-tribulation rapture theology was popularized extensively in the 1830s by John Nelson Darby and the Plymouth Brethren, and further popularized in the United States in the early 20th century by the wide circulation of the Scofield Reference Bible. // Plymouth Brethren. The Plymouth Brethren or Assemblies of brethren are a low church, non-conformist, Non-denominational Christian movement whose history can be traced back to Dublin, Ireland, in the late 1820s, where they originated from Anglicanism. The group emphasizes sola scriptura, the belief that the Bible is the supreme authority for church doctrine and practice, over and above any other source of authority. Plymouth Brethren generally see themselves as a network of like-minded free churches, not as a Christian denomination. // Exclusive Brethren. The Exclusive Brethren are a subset of the Christian evangelical movement generally described as the Plymouth Brethren. They are distinguished from the Open Brethren from whom they separated in 1848. (...) The Plymouth Brethren split into Exclusive and Open Brethren in 1848 when George Müller refused to accept John Nelson Darby's view of the relationship between local assemblies following difficulties in the Plymouth meeting. Brethren that held Muller's congregational view became known as "Open", those holding Darby's 'connexional' view, became known as "Exclusive" or "Darbyite" Brethren.

* C I Scofield [dispensational premillennialism] (1843-1921). Cyrus Ingerson Scofield was an American theologian, minister, and writer whose best-selling annotated Bible popularized futurism and dispensationalism among fundamentalist Christians. (...) As the author of the pamphlet "Rightly Dividing the Word of Truth" (1888), Scofield soon became a leader in dispensational premillennialism, a forerunner of twentieth-century Christian fundamentalism. Although, in theory, Scofield returned to his Dallas pastorate in 1903, his projected reference Bible consumed much of his energy, and he was also mostly either unwell or in Europe. When the Scofield Reference Bible was published in 1909, it quickly became the most influential statement of dispensational premillennialism, and Scofield's popularity as Bible conference speaker increased as his health continued to decline. (...) Religious significance. Scofield's correspondence Bible study course was the basis for his Reference Bible, an annotated, and widely circulated, study Bible first published in 1909 by Oxford University Press. Scofield's notes teach futurism and dispensationalism, a theology advanced in the early nineteenth century by the Anglo-Irish clergyman John Nelson Darby, who like Scofield had also been trained as a lawyer. Dispensationalism emphasizes the distinctions between the New Testament Church and ancient Israel of the Old Testament. Scofield believed that between creation and the final judgment there are seven distinct eras of God's dealing with humanity and that these eras are a framework around which the message of the Bible can be explained. It was largely through the influence of Scofield's notes that dispensational premillennialism became influential among fundamentalist Christians in the United States, and these notes became a significant source for popular religious writers such as Hal Lindsey. // The Scofield Reference Bible promoted dispensationalism, the belief that between creation and the final judgment there would be seven distinct eras of God's dealing with man and that these eras are a framework for synthesizing the message of the Bible. Largely through the influence of Scofield's notes, many fundamentalist Christians in the United States adopted a dispensational theology. Scofield's notes on the Book of Revelation are a major source for the various timetables, judgments, and plagues elaborated on by popular religious writers such as Hal Lindsey, Edgar C. Whisenant, and Tim LaHaye; and in part because of the success of the Scofield Reference Bible, twentieth-century American fundamentalists placed greater stress on eschatological speculation. (Scofield Reference Bible)

* C H Dodd [realized eschatology] (1884-1973). Charles Harold Dodd was a Welsh New Testament scholar and influential Protestant theologian. He is known for promoting "realized eschatology", the belief that Jesus' references to the kingdom of God meant a present reality rather than a future apocalypse. He was influenced by Martin Heidegger and Rudolf Otto. // At the other extreme we have the “realized eschatology” of C. H. Dodd, who argues that Jesus’ proclamation that “the kingdom of God is at hand” (Mk. 1:15) really means, “the kingdom of God has come.” Instead of preaching the imminent coming of an apocalyptic inbreaking of God to terminate history and establish the kingdom of God as an eschatological order, as Schweitzer thought, Jesus, according to Dodd, proclaimed the present coming of the eternal order into history in his own person and mission. The crisis is not future; it is present. This “realized eschatology” was both the message of Jesus and the heart of the kerygma {proclamation} in the primitive church, in Paul, and in John. All that the prophets had hoped for in the eschatological kingdom of God is now realized in present Christian experience.

* Johannes Weiss [theologian, 'Jesus was wrong about the imminent end'] (1863-1914). Johannes Weiss was a German Protestant theologian and biblical exegete. He was a member of the history of religions school. According to Weiss, the "Kingdom of God" was Jesus' understanding of an imminent end to history, and all continuous ethical teachings were additions made by the early Church to make Jesus' teaching relevant when the end of the world did not come about immediately. This greatly influenced several generations of Biblical scholars. As a corollary, Weiss believed that the authentic teachings of the historical Jesus would be inapplicable to those who did not hold his first-century apocalyptic worldview.

* Albert Schweitzer [vague, futurism ??] (1875-1965). Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer OM was an Alsatian polymath. He was a theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Paul's mysticism of "being in Christ" as primary and the doctrine of Justification by Faith as secondary. In The Quest, Schweitzer maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected late Jewish eschatology and apocalypticism. Schweitzer writes: "The Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, who preached the ethic of the kingdom of God, who founded the kingdom of heaven upon earth and died to give his work its final consecration never existed. He is a figure designed by rationalism, endowed with life by liberalism, and clothed by modern theology in a historical garb. This image has not been destroyed from outside; it has fallen to pieces..." Schweitzer cross-referenced the many New Testament verses declaring imminent fulfilment of the promise of the World's ending within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers. He wrote that in his view, in the Gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a "tribulation", with his "coming in the clouds with great power and glory" (St. Mark), and states that it will happen but it has not: "This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled" (St. Matthew, 24:34) or, "have taken place" (Luke 21:32). Similarly, in 1st Peter 1:20, "Christ, who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world but was manifest in these last times for you", as well as "But the end of all things is at hand" (1 Peter 4:7) and "Surely, I come quickly." (Revelation 22:20). {what on earth is this about ??} // A half century ago, Albert Schweitzer severely jolted the world of New Testament criticism by his interpretation of Jesus in exclusively eschatological terms. This view has come to be known as consistent eschatology. Schweitzer is one of the great minds of our generation, and a noble humanitarian. However, he pictured Jesus as a deluded Jewish apocalyptist who proclaimed an eschatological kingdom which never came and which never can come. Jesus had no message about the rule of God in the world or his divine purpose for mankind in history. He believed, mistakenly, that God was about to break off history and establish his eschatological kingdom in which he, Jesus, would be elevated to the glorious status of the Son of Man. For Schweitzer, the kingdom is altogether future and eschatological. Its only relation to the present was its imminence. GEORGE ELDON LADD - CONSISTENT OR REALIZED ESCHATOLOGY IN MATTHEW // In the first place, the notion of “consistent eschatology” was used by A. Schweitzer to designate his proposed solution for the historical problem of the life of Jesus (Life-of-Jesus research), according to which not only Jesus' proclamation (as held by J. Weiß), but also his behavior and deeds were conditioned by the eschatological expectation of an imminent parousia. BRILL - Consistent Eschatology

* Realized eschatology [vague] (XX). Realized eschatology is a Christian eschatological theory popularized by J.A.T. Robinson, Joachim Jeremias, Ethelbert Stauffer (1902- 1979), and C. H. Dodd (1884–1973) that holds that the eschatological passages in the New Testament do not refer to the future, but instead refer to the ministry of Jesus and his lasting legacy. Eschatology is therefore not the end of the world but its rebirth instituted by Jesus and continued by his disciples, a historical (rather than transhistorical) phenomenon. Those holding this view generally dismiss end times theories, believing them to be irrelevant; they hold that what Jesus said and did, and told his disciples to do likewise, are of greater significance than any messianic expectations. Walvoord asserts that this view is attractive to liberal Christians who prefer to emphasize the love and goodness of God while rejecting the notion of judgment. Instead, eschatology should be about being engaged in the process of becoming, rather than waiting for external and unknown forces to bring about destruction. Realized eschatology is contrasted with consistent eschatology. The two concepts have been combined in inaugurated eschatology.

* Consistent eschatology [vague] (XX). Consistent eschatology (Thoroughgoing eschatology) is an exclusive futuristic eschatology, the consistent interpretation of Jesus' eschatology as an expectation of an imminent end, and the thorough-going eschatology, the first position by Albert Schweitzer. He used a thorough eschatology to provide a solution to the historical problems associated with Jesus' life. According to this view, the proclamation of Jesus asserted by Johannes Weiss (J. Weiß) and his actions and ministry are dominated by the eschatological expectation of the impending return. It is in contrast to realized eschatology, which sees the kingdom of God as not in the future but already completed in the ministry of Jesus Christ. It has evolved into inaugurated eschatology which started the synthesis of the consistent eschatology by Albert Schweitzer and realized eschatology by C. H. Dodd. GEORGE ELDON LADD - CONSISTENT OR REALIZED ESCHATOLOGY IN MATTHEW

* Historical Jesus [Исторический Иисус Христос]. Historical Jesus (historical-critical method - secular view). Historical Jesus is the reconstruction of the life and teachings of Jesus by critical historical methods, in contrast to Christological definitions (the Christ of Christianity) and other Christian accounts of Jesus (the Christ of faith). It also considers the historical and cultural contexts in which Jesus lived.

* Inaugurated eschatology [Schweizer, vague; эсхатологическое предощущение ??] (XX). Inaugurated eschatology is the belief in Christian theology that the end times were inaugurated in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus, and thus there are both "already" and "not yet" aspects to the Kingdom of God. George Eldon Ladd suggests that the Kingdom of God is "not only an eschatological gift belonging to the Age to Come; it is also a gift to be received in the old aeon."  This approach was first developed by Geerhardus Vos, especially in his 1930 work, The Pauline Eschatology. Later, Oscar Cullmann sought to combine the "thorough-going eschatology" of Albert Schweitzer with the "realized eschatology" of C. H. Dodd. // Некоторые иудеи уже при жизни, не дожидаясь эсхатологического приговора, стремились обозначить свою принадлежность к народу Божьему «праведными делами», призванными указать всему миру, что они и есть наследники Завета, «истинный Израиль». Верность «делам Закона» — предписаниям о субботе, пище, обрезании — позволяла им испытывать то, что некоторые исследователи называют «эсхатологическим предощущением» {??; eschatological presentiment} (inaugurated eschatology) —  предчувствием будущего в настоящем. (DOC) Николас Томас Райт - Что на самом деле сказал апостол Павел // Швейцер-богослов. Швейцера очень интересовал поиск исторического Иисуса — евангельская критика. Через описание и критику этих поисков он и стал очень известен. Представитель либерального направления. Понимание христианства в его мысли представляется очень разнообразным. Христос для Швейцера — просто человек. Он считал, что все действия, которые Христос совершил, зависят от субъективного убеждения Христа в том, что скоро конец света. Эта эсхатологическая интерпретация Евангелия у Швейцера призвана очистить христианство от метафизики: от убеждений, что Христос — Бог. В работе «История исследования жизни Иисуса» он рассмотрел основные концепции евангельской истории. Он показывает, что тот образ, который выстраивают апостолы, является лишь вариантом интерпретации христианства. Тонкий психолог, Швейцер показал в своих работах, что апостолы каждый по-своему наслаивали свои представления об идеальной личности на личность Иисуса. Данная работа Швейцера на долгое время остановила движение поисков исторического Иисуса, так как им была подведена окончательная черта. "Утверждать, что Иисус никогда не существовал, — дело нетрудное. Однако если мы попытаемся доказать это утверждение, то неизбежно придем к противоположному выводу... По всему по этому, когда читаешь сочинения авторов, оспаривающих историчность личности Иисуса, становится ясным до очевидности, что доказать Его существование в тысячу раз легче, чем несуществование." (Швейцер, Альберт)

* Rudolf Bultmann [liberal, existentialist ??, anti-historicism] (1884-1976). Rudolf Karl Bultmann was a German Lutheran theologian and professor of the New Testament at the University of Marburg. He was one of the major figures of early-20th-century biblical studies. A prominent critic of liberal theology, Bultmann instead argued for an existentialist interpretation of the New Testament. His hermeneutical approach to the New Testament led him to be a proponent of dialectical theology (Neo-orthodoxy). Bultmann is known for his belief that the historical analysis of the New Testament is both futile and unnecessary, given that the earliest Christian literature showed little interest in specific locations. Bultmann argued that all that matters is the "thatness", not the "whatness" of Jesus, i.e. only that Jesus existed, preached, and died by crucifixion matters, not what happened throughout his life. Bultmann relied on demythologization, an approach interpreting the mythological elements in the New Testament existentially. Bultmann contended that only faith in the kerygma, or proclamation, of the New Testament was necessary for Christian faith, not any particular facts regarding the historical Jesus. // Schweitzer’s consistent eschatology has been one of the most influential interpretations in the modern study of New Testament theology. It has been adopted by Rudolf Bultmann and many of his followers. Bultmann designates as “escape-reasoning” the view that “Jesus saw the presence of God’s Reign in his own person and in the followers who gathered about him. But such a view cannot be substantiated by a single saying of Jesus, and it contradicts the meaning of ‘God’s Reign.'” Bultmann sees Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as no part of the Christian message but as an element to Judaism. Bultmann does indeed find a deeper existential meaning in Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God; but in its form, Jesus was only a Jewish eschatological prophet. GEORGE ELDON LADD - CONSISTENT OR REALIZED ESCHATOLOGY IN MATTHEW

* Neo-orthodoxy [transcendence, negative theology ??]. Neo-orthodoxy or Neoorthodoxy, in Christianity, also known as theology of crisis and dialectical theology, was a theological movement developed in the aftermath of the First World War. The movement was largely a reaction against doctrines of 19th-century liberal theology and a reevaluation of the teachings of the Reformation. Karl Barth is the leading figure associated with the movement. In the U.S., Reinhold Niebuhr was a leading exponent of neo-orthodoxy. Neo-orthodoxy strongly emphasises the revelation of God by God as the source of Christian doctrine. This is in contrast to natural theology, whose proponents include Thomas Aquinas, who states that knowledge of God can be gained through a combination of observation of nature and human reason; the issue remains a controversial topic within some circles of Christianity to this day. Most neo-orthodox thinkers stressed the transcendence of God {negative theology ??}. Barth believed that the emphasis on the immanence of God had led human beings to imagine God to amount to nothing more than humanity writ large. He stressed the "infinite qualitative distinction" between the human and the divine {i.e. beyond comprehension ??}, a reversion to older Protestant teachings on the nature of God and a rebuttal against the intellectual heritage of philosophical idealism. This led to a general devaluation of philosophical and metaphysical approaches to the faith, although some thinkers, notably Paul Tillich, attempted a median course between strict transcendence and ontological analysis of the human condition, a stand that caused a further division in the movement.

* Ernst Bloch [optimistic teleology] (1885-1977). Ernst Bloch was a German Marxist philosopher. Bloch was influenced by Hegel and Karl Marx, as well as by apocalyptic and religious thinkers such as Thomas Müntzer, Paracelsus, and Jacob Boehme. He established friendships with György Lukács, Bertolt Brecht, Kurt Weill, Walter Benjamin, and Theodor W. Adorno. Bloch's work focuses on an optimistic teleology of the history of mankind. Bloch was a highly original and eccentric thinker. Much of his writing—in particular, his magnum opus The Principle of Hope—is written in a poetic, aphoristic style. The Principle of Hope tries to provide an encyclopedic account of mankind's and nature's orientation towards a socially and technologically improved future. This orientation is part of Bloch's overarching philosophy. Bloch believed the universe is undergoing a transition from its primordial cause (Urgrund) toward its final goal (Endziel) {Jewish messianism}. He believed this transition is effected through a subject-object dialectic, and he saw evidence for this process in all aspects of human history and culture.

* Jürgen Moltmann [Theology of Hope] (b 1926). Jürgen Moltmann is a German Reformed theologian who is Professor Emeritus of Systematic Theology at the University of Tübingen. and is known for his books such as the Theology of Hope, The Crucified God, God in Creation and other contributions to systematic theology. Moltmann developed a form of liberation theology predicated on the view that God suffers with humanity, while also promising humanity a better future through the hope of the Resurrection, which he has labelled a 'theology of hope'. Theology of Hope was strongly influenced by the eschatological orientation of the Marxist philosopher, Ernst Bloch's The Principle of Hope. Moltmann's theology is also seen as a theology of liberation, though not in the sense that the term is most understood. Moltmann not only views salvation as Christ's "preferential option for the poor," but also as offering the hope of reconciliation to the oppressors of the poor. If it were not as such, divine reconciliation would be insufficient.

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FYODOROV AND SOURCES

* Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov [transhumanism, Common Cause; Николай Фёдорович Фёдоров ] (1829–1903) was a Russian Orthodox Christian philosopher, who was part of the Russian cosmism movement and a precursor of transhumanism. Fyodorov advocated radical life extension, physical immortality and even resurrection of the dead, using {pseudo-}scientific methods. // So in many ways Fedorov’s utopia contains elements we would more commonly associate with the utopias of science fiction. But it is a religious conception that envisages the restoration of man to God. And as such, it has some features in common with other religious philosophies we have examined this year; as in Slavophilism, and in Dostoevsky’s conception of the God-bearing narod, there is a nationalistic (not to say xenophobic) side that makes a virtue of Russia’s backwardness (Young, p. 137) to propose that this is precisely the place where transformation will happen, because Russian life is based on kinship and communality, and Russia has therefore not advanced so far along the (corrupt) European road that takes man away from God {but Fyodorov was a universalist and an internationalist ??}. His critique of capitalism has a particular moral slant that is close to Tolstoy’s ideas on both eros and violence (perhaps an indication of his influence on Tolstoy): "by producing and distributing commodities that were sensually appealing and, consequently, indispensable for the sexual attraction between sexes, capitalist industry promoted and stimulated a struggle for the possession of these commodities and, through them, for the possession of sexual mates. For this reason, it is possible to say that capitalist industry promoted and stimulated struggle for sexual selection." (Lukashevich, p. 214). Moreover, ‘capitalism fathered militarism, which was the capitalist expression of the animal struggle for natural selection.’ (ibid.) So capitalism is viewed as a form of Darwinist survival of the fittest, but Fedorov was not a radical and did not in any way embrace socialist ideas. In fact, in his privileging of the ancestors, and repudiation of common conceptions of “progress,” he can be seen as the epitome of conservatism. But at the same time, this conservatism is combined with “the most fantastic future prospects” that distance it from other ideologies (I have borrowed that phrase from Dostoevsky, who uses it in a completely different context, in relation to his realism, but it seems most appropriate). It suggests that utopianism in not confined to one ideological position within Russian thought, but is rather connected to the universal significance of particular ideas within the Russian tradition, namely unity and love.  But if you are inclined to dismiss Fedorov as a fantasist because his technological utopia seems rather far-fetched, one should remember not only that some of his ideas, such as space exploration, have already been achieved, but also look at what he says will happen if technology is not directed towards the “common task.” He describes a future “pornocracy” in which people live according to their animal instincts, driven by lust (he wasn’t a great fan of women, and saw sex as counter to our true purpose; Young, p. 69). The goal of technology if this happened will not be not to restore life but to create maximum satisfaction and comfort for the living (Young, pp. 117-8). And even if one disagrees with his judgement on the morality of this, it would be hard to argue that there is not an element of this in the situation we live in today. Russian thought lecture 9: Nikolai Fedorov and the utopia of the resurrected // " В гибели человека, в гибели зверя совершилась одна трагедия – вечное насилие сильного над слабым, преступление Эроса страстного против иного, бесстрастного – против Того, Кто сказал: «Да будут все едино, – как Ты, Отче, во Мне, и Я в Тебе, так и они да будут в Нас едино»." Д. С. Мережковский - Л.Толстой и Достоевский

* Бессмертники [Воскресники; Immortalists, Resurrectionists ??] — мистическая христианская секта, распространённая в России в XIX - начале XX веков, основой вероучения которой была вера в потенциальное всеобщее физическое бессмертие людей. Секта была создана в Москве в начале 1880-х годов М. И. Ивановым, сотрудником «Общества для распространения Священного Писания в России». Своё вероучение Иванов основывал на строке из Евангелия: «И всякий, живущий и верующий в Меня, не умрёт вовек» (Ин. 11:26). Таким образом, все люди призваны Богом к вечной жизни на земле, но умирают, так как не верят Ему. После того, как в 1893 году Иванов был сослан в Ереван, секту возглавил Евдоким Михайлович Черноног, содержатель {keeper, owner} каретчиков {??}. Он успешно распространял учение секты, в том числе и благодаря тому, что располагал значительными денежными средствами и большим штатом сотрудников. То, что сами бессмертники нередко умирали, их лидеры объясняли недостатком веры. Постепенно бессмертники разделились на три ветви — бессмертников Ветхого Завета, бессмертников Нового Завета и бессмертников Третьего Завета. Около 1909 года русский философ Николай Бердяев неоднократно встречался с бессмертниками и даже принимал их у себя дома. Данных о существовании секты в советский период нет. См. также: Хлысты, Скопцы, Иммортализм. [E64]

* Symbolism [Символизм] (XIX/XX). The Symbolist movement in painting which arose in France, Belgium and the Netherlands around 1890 was not a direct result of theosophy, but was a phenomenon that could only have arisen at the same time and in the same milieu. It was certainly “theosophical” in the traditional sense of the term. The Symbolists aimed at the re-spiritualization of art, rejecting both academic realism and the everyday subject-matter of the Impressionists. Most of them, like the theosophists, were syncretic in their sources. Their inspiration came variously from Christian mysticism (e.g., some of the paintings of Maurice Denis, Thorn Prikker), Oriental mythology (Paul Gauguin, Paul Ranson) the “Rosicrucian” revival of Josephin Peladan (Jean DELVILLE, Fernand Khnopff, Carlos Schwabe, Jan Toorop) and sacred geometry (Charles Filger, Paul Serusier). Art, Theosophy and // "The Theosophical scheme, as Blavatsky drew it together, involved humans' only gradually becoming sexed (having developed from asexuality to androgyny or bisexuality, and then to heterosexuality) as the spirit manifested itself in the world of matter. (...) While Theosophy has often been seen as preoccupied with spiritualizing the body, and Blavatsky herself exclaimed that ''the absolutely spiritual Man is . . . entirely disconnected from sex'' (quoted in Dixon 418), a generative and sexed universe was key to much Theosophical writing." (Mark Morrisson - Modern Alchemy: Occultism and the Emergence of Atomic Theory) // At our present stage of evolution, the human joining with the interior pull of complexity-consciousness results in an affection that draws forward all of evolution. Thus, a greater spiritualization of the universe is affected which Teilhard calls the transforming power of love, the amorization of things. By the increase of amorization and personalization in the individual, there arises a collective spirit of thought encompassing the globe that Teilhard terms noogenesis. The final threshold is when evolution moves towards its highest form of personalization and spiritualization in the Cosmic Christ of the universe. Having come to that which has been drawing evolution forward through all its millennia of movement, spirit-matter simultaneously arrives at the end that was its beginning, namely, the Omega point. A. Grim- Teilhard’s Vision of Evolution John // Before entering the subject of the emergence and evolution of the noosphere, we need to recall some fundamental ideas of Teilhard’s understanding of the nature of matter which forms its primordial stuff. He begins by rejecting all matter-spirit dualism, and presents a concept of matter which includes the spiritual dimension. He tries to understand the nature of matter, not from the point of view of its simplest particles (quarks and leptons), as physicists do, but from the evidence of human consciousness. (...) Already in one of his earliest essays, “The Cosmic Life” he states that man affirms his superiority over all the other things being the active part of the universe. His role is to achieve the cosmic evolution till the realization of its last promises 9 . Through the human the “spiritualization” of the universe takes place, when matter is absorbed by the spirit through the communion in the Omega Point. At the level of the noosphere, human forward progress (en avant) in more evolved societies is also an upward progress (en haut) to a greater spirituality in the direction of his final convergence in the Omega Point. Agustín Udías - Teilhard de Chardin’s planetary vision of humanity: The Noosphere

* Pierre Teilhard de Chardin [Пьер Тейяр де Шарден] (1881-1955) was a French idealist philosopher and Jesuit Catholic priest who trained as a paleontologist and geologist and took part in the discovery of the Peking Man. He conceived the vitalist idea of the Omega Point, and he developed with Vladimir Vernadsky the concept of noosphere. Teilhard de Chardin wrote two comprehensive works, The Phenomenon of Man and The Divine Milieu. His posthumously published book, The Phenomenon of Man, set forth a sweeping account of the unfolding of the cosmos and the evolution of matter to humanity, to ultimately a reunion with Christ. In the book, Teilhard abandoned literal interpretations of creation in the Book of Genesis in favor of allegorical and theological interpretations. The unfolding of the material cosmos is described from primordial particles to the development of life, human beings and the noosphere, and finally to his vision of the Omega Point in the future, which is "pulling" all creation towards it. He was a leading proponent of orthogenesis, the idea that evolution occurs in a directional, goal-driven way. Teilhard argued in Darwinian terms with respect to biology, and supported the synthetic model of evolution, but argued in Lamarckian terms for the development of culture, primarily through the vehicle of education. Teilhard made a total commitment to the evolutionary process in the 1920s as the core of his spirituality, at a time when other religious thinkers felt evolutionary thinking challenged the structure of conventional Christian faith. He committed himself to what the evidence showed. Teilhard made sense of the universe by assuming it had a vitalist evolutionary process. He interprets complexity as the axis of evolution of matter into a geosphere, a biosphere, into consciousness (in man), and then to supreme consciousness (the Omega Point).

* Vladimir Vernadsky [Владимир Иванович Вернадский] (1863-1945) was a Russian, Ukrainian and Soviet mineralogist and geochemist who is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology. He is also known as the founder of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. He is most noted for his 1926 book The Biosphere in which he inadvertently worked to popularize Eduard Suess' 1885 term biosphere, by hypothesizing that life is the geological force that shapes the earth. Vernadsky first popularized the concept of the noosphere and deepened the idea of the biosphere to the meaning largely recognized by today's scientific community. The word 'biosphere' was invented by Austrian geologist Eduard Suess, whom Vernadsky met in 1911.  In Vernadsky's theory of the Earth's development, the noosphere is the third stage in the earth's development, after the geosphere (inanimate matter) and the biosphere (biological life). Just as the emergence of life fundamentally transformed the geosphere, the emergence of human cognition will fundamentally transform the biosphere. In this theory, the principles of both life and cognition are essential features of the Earth's evolution, and must have been implicit in the earth all along. This systemic and geological analysis of living systems complements Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection,[citation needed] which looks at each individual species, rather than at its relationship to a subsuming principle.  Vernadsky's visionary pronouncements were not widely accepted in the West. However, he was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planets as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was an important pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences.

* Sergei Bulgakov on chiliasm [Сергей Булгаков о хилиазме]. {this is an important distinction} But as a Christian, he {Bulgakov} will introduce a certain, crucial difference: the difference between secular chiliasm and Christian eschatology. Chiliasm opens the horizontal dimension of human history with its vision of a paradise on earth {active / utopian}, while a transcendent, religious, hence eschatological view opens a vertical dimension with its vision of all-encompassing resurrection and the possibility of interference from above {waitful}. In short, in Bulgakov’s understanding, human or Godhuman history is “free action, work and a heroic act of all humanity” within a realm between the created horizontal dimension and a divine vertical dimension. Regula M.Zwahlen - "Serge Bulgakov’s Justification of History" // Откровение все «горит», но при этом заканчивается оптимистически. Поэтому следует различать хилиазм (тысячелетнее царство христиан на земле, осуществляющееся во времени) и Парусию (постоянное присутствие Христа в истории, окончательное Его воцарение в метаистории), апокалипсис и эсхатологию. || Из всех людей, которых мне довелось встретить, только о. Сергий был «эсхатологичен» в прямом, простом, первохристианском смысле этого слова, означающем не только учение о конце, но и ожидание конца». (PDF) Сергей Николаевич Булгаков: вехи биографии и творчества // Можно прямо сказать на основании такого сопоставления, что в христианском хилиазме отрицается, хотя и молчаливо, но выразительно, иудейский. Однако в то же время остается внешнее сродство между ними, позволяющее утверждать, что иудейский хилиазм, преображенный и измененный, сохранился и в христианстве. Однако благодаря этим изменениям христианский хилиазм утратил всю определенность иудейского, как и его чувственный характер. Христианский хилиазм представляет собою некоторый иероглиф, священный символ, допускающий различное, почти даже противоположное толкование. Уже в первые века христианства обозначилось два основных течения в понимании христианского хилиазма (а с ним и всего Апокалипсиса): иудейское, чувственно-историческое, и спиритуалистическое. Для первого хилиазм — есть цель истории, идеал прогресса, достигаемый в историческом развитии, следовательно, он всецело относится к будущему. Согласно второму хилиазм принадлежит столько же будущему, сколько прошлому и настоящему, ибо тысячелетнее царство Христа и святых Его есть Церковь, и сатана связан еще при первом пришествии Христа. Представителями иудейского хилиазма в первохристианской письменности являются св. Иустин философ и св. Ириней, еп. Лионский, который, как уже упомянуто выше, приводит отрывок из иудейского апокалипсиса Варуха в качестве предания, идущего от Иоанна, ученика Господня. Защитниками спиритуалистического толкования явились представители эллинистических философских влияний, сначала Ориген, а позднее блаж. Августин. Первый, в соответствии общему своему спиритуализму и аллегорическому методу истолкования св. Писания, мог только с негодованием отнестись к идее земного чувственного царства. Также относится и Августин, посвящающий вопросам эсхатологии 20-ю книгу De civitate Dei. Основная мысль его, легшая в основу мировоззрения католической церкви и позднее средневековой католической иерократии, такова: "В настоящее время церковь есть царствие Христово и царствие небесное. Поэтому и в настоящее время святые Его царствуют с Ним, хотя иначе, чем будут царствовать тогда". Прот. Сергий Булгаков - Апокалиптика и социализм VI. Хилиазм и социализм [E66]

* Transatlantic millennialism ['Трансатлантический милленниализм']. Европейцы открывали Америку, надеясь разыскать там библейский рай. Утопию и в этот раз найти не удалось, пришлось ее строить. Новый Свет оказался полон старых и новых сект. После религиозных преследований и экономических притеснений в родной Европе свободная американская земля и впрямь могла казаться вновь обретенным раем. Утопическая политика легко сочеталась здесь с апокалиптической верой и эротическими новациями {??}. Пуритане, квакеры, моравские братья, анабаптисты, меннониты и менее известные общины приехали в Новый Свет в 18-м или начале 19-го века, получив там свободу для религиозной проповеди, а также для реализации своих земных идей, экономических, социальных или сексуальных. В их среде быстро возникали новые общины - перфекционисты, трансценденталисты, сведенборгианцы, оуэниты, фурьеристы. Как видно, и новые течения нередко следовали идеям, давно или недавно выработанным в Европе. Именно в Америке в первый - и часто в последний - раз реализовывались социалистические и коммунистические проекты европейских утопистов. Новая Гармония была основана англичанином Робертом Оуэном в 1825 году в Индиане; фаланстеры по Шарлю Фурье появились и исчезли в 1840-х в Новой Англии; Икария другого француза, Этьена Кабе, была основана в 1850-м в Иллинойсе; Коммуния немца Вильгельма Вейтлинга - в 1851 году в Айове. Европейские дискурсы легко достигали здесь крайних точек, хотя все же не таких крайних, как в России. В Америке получили значительную популярность шейкеры. Они практиковали полное безбрачие, но, в отличие от одновременно появившихся в России скопцов, не прибегали к помощи ножа. Основательница этой секты англичанка Энн Ли перебралась через океан в 1774 году и быстро привлекла сотни, а потом тысячи сторонников в Новой Англии; в 1875-м шейкеры насчитывали 18 преуспевающих общин в семи разных штатах. Отсутствие сексуальной жизни шейкеры компенсировали групповой техникой религиозного экстаза, близкой к ритуалу русских хлыстов и тоже включавшей моторные упражнения (прыжки, верчения, конвульсии), пение, пророчества и призывание духов. Джозеф Смит основал церковь мормонов, которая сначала тайно, а с 1852 по 1890 год открыто практиковала полигамию. Несколько менее известным остался многолетний эксперимент в стабильной и богатой, но очень странной общине. Внешне она выглядела как наконец обретенный рай, разместившийся в викторианском поместье красного кирпича среди зеленых лугов Новой Англии; на деле же реализовала идеи самые необычные и совсем невикторианские. {... ??} -- Chaosss: Александр Эткинд – СОВЕРШЕНСТВО

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* Apocatastasis [Апокатастасис]. Apocatastasis is reconstitution, restitution, or restoration to the original or primordial condition. An interpretation divides apocatastasis into three types of restorations, those involving virtuous individuals, nature, and the sinful powers of souls. While apocatastasis is derived from the Greek verb apokathistemi, which means "to restore", it first emerged as a doctrine in Zoroastrianism where it is the third time of creation. This period was referred to as wizarishn or the end of history—the time of separation and resolution when evil is destroyed and the world is restored to its original state. The idea of apocatastasis may have been derived from the ancient concept of cosmic cycle, which involves the notion of celestial bodies returning to their original positions after a period of time. According to Edward Moore, apokatastasis was first properly conceptualized in early Stoic thought, particularly by Chrysippus. The return (apokatastasis) of the planets and stars to their proper celestial signs, namely their original positions, would spark a conflagration of the universe (ekpyrosis). The original position was believed to consist of an alignment of celestial bodies with Cancer. Thereafter, from fire, rebirth would commence, and this cycle of alternate destruction and recreation was correlated with a divine Logos {cosmic reason, ~laws of nature ??}. Antapocatastasis is a counter-recurrence when the stars and planets align with Capricorn, which would mark destruction by a universal flood. The Stoics identified Zeus with an alternately expanding and contracting fire constituting the universe. Its expansion was described as Zeus turning his thoughts outwards, resulting in the creation of the material cosmos, and its contraction, the apocatastasis, as Zeus returning to self-contemplation. Acts 3:21 NIV. Heaven must receive him until the time comes for God to restore everything, as he promised long ago through his holy prophets. The usual view taken of Peter's use of the "apokatastasis of all the things about which God spoke" is that it refers to the restoration of the Kingdom of Israel and/or the Garden of Eden and not "all things that ever existed". The significance of apocatastasis in early Christianity is today being re-evaluated. In particular it is now questioned whether Origen, often listed as the most notable advocate of universal salvation, did in fact teach or believe in such a doctrine. The Alexandrian school (Origin, Clement) adapted Platonic terminology and ideas to Christianity while explaining and differentiating the new faith from all the others. More recently leading Patristic scholar Ilaria Ramelli has concluded that not only did Origen embrace the doctrine of Apocatastasis, but that it was central to all his theological and philosophical thought. She remarks, "In Origen’s thought, the doctrine of apokatastasis is interwoven with his anthropology, eschatology, theology, philosophy of history, theodicy, and exegesis; for anyone who takes Origen’s thought seriously and with a deep grasp of it, it is impossible to separate the apokatastasis theory from all the rest, so as to reject it but accept the rest." In early Christian theological usage, apocatastasis meant the ultimate restoration of all things to their original state, which early exponents believed would still entail a purgatorial state, Both Origen and Gregory of Nyssa confidently taught that all creatures would be saved. The word was still very flexible at that time, but in the mid-6th century, it became virtually a technical term, as it usually means today, to refer to a specifically Origenistic doctrine of universal salvation. Maximus the Confessor outlined God's plan for "universal" salvation alongside warnings of everlasting punishment for the wicked.

* Cosmic fire theme ['Тема космического огня']. Gnosticism. Yaldabaoth is frequently called "the Lion-faced", leontoeides, and is said to have the body of a serpent. The demiurge is also described as having a fiery nature, applying the words of Moses to him: "the Lord our God is a burning and consuming fire". Hippolytus claims that Simon used a similar description. In Pistis Sophia, Yaldabaoth has already sunk from his high estate and resides in Chaos, where, with his forty-nine demons, he tortures wicked souls in boiling rivers of pitch, and with other punishments (pp. 257, 382). He is an archon with the face of a lion, half flame, and half darkness. (Demiurge) No mention of cosmic / consuming fire in Gnosticism {??}. // Manichaeism. Once considered a Christian heresy, Manichaeism is now regarded as a complex dualistic religion essentially gnostic in character {??} {requires knowledge to escape from the material prison ??}. (...) The Third Messenger has put in operation the liberating machine, salvation, while the struggle between Light and Darkness continues. Adam has already received a message from the Kingdom of Light. The prophets will follow and announce the mysteries of the universe and of redemption. After the three great messengers, Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus, will come Mānī, charged with the last message, with the definitive teaching on origins and eschatology, and with the organization of the Church of Light. This world will last only for a time. Some day the five bearers, sons of the Living Spirit, will receive a signal from the Kingdom of Light, and they will let the universe fall. It will be destroyed in an infernal crash and will be consumed by a fire lasting for 1,468 years, after which all the luminous particles will have rejoined the Paradise of Light. This is the final stage in the Manichaean eschatology. RIES, J. - New Catholic Encyclopedia - MANICHAEISM // Stoicism. Stoicism was also a monistic and gnostic philosophy because it believed that there was one principle spirit of the universe that permeated nature. This world-spirit was believed to be a material god made up of a fiery breath, called pneuma or soul of the world, that infused all creatures with heat and life. Once the cycle of creation had taken its course, the pneuma would consume the world with fire and restart the cycle of events all over again. Each cycle was identical to the last as each played out the divine plan of the world-spirit. Thus the stoic philosophy was materialist, monist and fatalist. Not even spirits were immaterial, as these were also descended from the fiery body of the first principle; the pneuma. As the pneuma controls and governs the universe according to its own divine reason, so nature itself is rational. Anything that happens is a pre-ordained event that is in accordance with the divine dictates of this nature-fate. Thus, the stoic god was immanent in creation and nothing that could happen was against the divine will. Stoicism, Apathy & Fatalism // The Stoics believed in soul — even for the animals, though not a rational soul.In rational creatures, however, they considered the Pneuma (fiery breath) to be manifested at a higher degree of intensity as an "emanation from the world-soul." This Pneuma was a spark of the celestial Fire. Essentially the Stoics believed that what God is for the world, the soul is for man.They declared that the Cosmos must be viewed as a single Whole — with its "variety being referred to varying stages of condensation in Pneuma." Therefore, for the Stoics, the actual nature of a human person is the universal on a small scale — a microcosm. There is a parallel between the macrocosm and the microcosm. God, the Soul of the World, fills and penetrates it. Similarly, the human soul pervades and breathes through all the body — informing and guiding it. In both the macrocosm and the microcosm, there is a ruling part. An Introduction to Stoic Philosophy // * Pantheirm - Divine sperm (Stoics). More specifically, God is identical with one of the two ungenerated and indestructible first principles (archai) of the universe. One principle is matter which they regard as utterly unqualified and inert. It is that which is acted upon. God is identified with an eternal reason (logos) or intelligent designing fire or a breath (pneuma) which structures matter in accordance with Its plan. The designing fire is likened to sperm or seed which contains the first principles or directions of all the things which will subsequently develop. The biological conception of God as a kind of living heat or seed from which things grow seems to be fully intended. The further identification of God with pneuma or breath may have its origins in medical theories of the Hellenistic period. (...) Just as living things have a life-cycle that is witnessed in parents and then again in their off-spring, so too the universe has a life cycle that is repeated. This life cycle is guided by, or equivalent to, a developmental plan that is identified with God. There is a cycle of endless recurrence, beginning from a state in which all is fire, through the generation of the elements, to the creation of the world we are familiar with, and eventually back to the state of pure designing fire called ‘the conflagration’. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Stoicism // 2 Peter 3:10 But the Day of the Lord will come like a thief. The heavens will disappear with a roar, the elements will be destroyed by fire, and the earth and its works will be laid bare. 11Since everything will be destroyed in this way, what kind of people ought you to be? You ought to conduct yourselves in holiness and godliness 12 as you anticipate and hasten the coming of the day of God, when the heavens will be destroyed by fire and the elements will melt in the heat. 13 But in keeping with God’s promise, we are looking forward to a new heaven and a new earth, where righteousness dwells. // Peter, writing of the last days scoffers, alludes to this original primal creation.  “For this they are willingly ignorant of, that by the word of God the heavens were of old, and the earth standing out of the water, and in the water: whereby the world that then was (the primal creation), being overflowed with water, perished” (2 Peter 3: 5-6).  In Genesis 1-2, Moses records the restoration of this primal earth.  But Peter writes that the “heavens and earth which are now” (2 Peter 3: 7) are reserved unto fire.  This fiery deluge (referred to in Rev. 20:11 {Revelation 20:11, NIV: "Then I saw a great white throne and him who was seated on it. The earth and the heavens fled from his presence, and there was no place for them."} and 21:1 {Revelation 21:1NIV 21 Then I saw “a new heaven and a new earth,”[a] for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and there was no longer any sea.}) is the antitype of that deluge of water whereby the original earth became without form and void. The Anti-Preterist's Blog - The New Heavens And Earth: Literal or Figurative? // [About the Antichrist and the number 666] Thus, then, the six hundred years of Noah, in whose time the deluge occurred because of the apostasy, and the number of the cubits of the image for which these just men were sent into the fiery furnace, do indicate the number of the name of that man in whom is concentrated the whole apostasy of six thousand years, and unrighteousness, and wickedness, and false prophecy, and deception; for which things' sake a cataclysm of fire shall also come [upon the earth]. New Advent - [Irenaeus] Against Heresies (Book V, Chapter 29) // Then, by permission of my Father, gloomy darkness shall spread over the lower regions of the earth and a hell of fire shall burn all the land from its lowest depths even unto the air of the firmament. And the Lord shall be [supreme] in the firmament even unto the nether regions of the earth. Should a man of thirty years pick up a stone and let it drop, it would scarcely strike the bottom within the space of three years, so great is the depth of the pool of fire wherein dwell the sinners {sky in flames and pool of fire are the same thing here}. Then Satan shall be bound and all his host, and he shall be cast into the pool of fire. (Heresies of the high middle ages : selected sources, translated and annotated / by Walter L. Wakefield and Austin P. Evans - THE SECRET SUPPER (Bogomil text)) // God’s creatures will be brought out of the countries of their exile to their own land, the new earth which God gave to Christ (chap. XVI). The means of salvation is Christ, who became incarnate and suffered in the superior realm in order to draw all unto himself. The fate of the present heavens is to disappear in heat and fire on the Day of Judgment,20 when the day of the Lord will suddenly appear. The “new heavens,” however, are said in the Scriptures to have perished or been lost, to grow old and change {??}. It appears that these words refer to the “sheep that are lost of the house of Israel,” to whom Christ was sent. They grow old among enemies {??}, but on being regained will be changed into incorruptibility by the right hand of the Most High (chap. XVII). Then the lost sheep, the children of Jerusalem, will be gathered together, and to them, in the joy of their salvation will be restored the crowns of justice which they had lost by their sin (chap. XIX). || (Note 20) This probably does not mean that the wicked world will cease entirely to be, but that the incarceration of the heavenly spirits therein will end. See n. 210, below. || (210) Ps. 76 (A.V. 77): 11. With the preceding description of the Last Judgment, cf. chap. XI. Should the passage be taken to mean that the present evil world will be destroyed in an absolute sense? This would seriously modify the doctrine of radical dualism, of two coeternal creations, which is manifested elsewhere in the treatise. Mile Thouzellier suggests that in the light of chap. XI, especially the paraphrase of Matt. 24 therein, the interpretation is not that the diabolic creation will be utterly dissolved but that the state of imprisonment of souls in terrestrial life will end; that is, in so far as God's creatures are concerned, the domination of evil over them will be destroyed. The good and imperishable heavens spoken of in this chapter symbolize the fallen souls whom Christ redeemed. {Dualism: the old world will become the pool of fire, which will exist unto eternity. (??)} // Isaiah 51:6 NIV 6 Lift up your eyes to the heavens, look at the earth beneath; the heavens will vanish like smoke, the earth will wear out like a garment and its inhabitants die like flies. But my salvation will last forever, my righteousness will never fail.

* Gnostic cosmic transformation [does it even exist?; 'Гностическое космическое преображение']. No one comes to his true selfhood by being what society wants him to be nor by doing what it wants him to do. Family, society, church, trade and profession, political and patriotic allegiances, as well as moral and ethical rules and commandments are, in reality, not in the least conducive to the true spiritual welfare of the human soul. On the contrary, they are more often than not the very shackles which keep us from our true spiritual destiny. This feature of Gnosticism was regarded as heretical in olden days, and even today is often called "world denying" and "anti-life," but it is, of course, merely good psychology as well as good spiritual theology because it is good sense. The politician and the social philosopher may look upon the world as a problem to be solved, but the Gnostic, with his psychological discernment, recognizes it as a predicament from which we need to extricate ourselves by insight. For Gnostics, like psychologists, do not aim at the transformation of the world but at the transformation of the mind, with its natural consequence—a changed attitude toward the world. // However, the Gnostic solution is not a necessary one. Other reactions are possible, such as Stoic cosmopolitanism, which aims to reconcile ecumenic rule and the Hellenic philosophy of the polis; or actual political resistance against the ecumenic rulers as with the Maccabees or the Zealots. The most important possibility in this context is what Voegelin calls the metastatic {expected, yet unrealistic} apocalypse. It expresses the same hate against the ecumenic empires, but turns to a historical solution instead of a cosmic one, as in the case of Gnosticism. In the vision of Daniel (Dan. 2), history is described as a succession of hostile empires. Yet, the faith of the believer is so strong that it anticipates a future transformation of the world in a metastatic act which implies the destruction of imperial reality altogether. The alienation from reality is as complete as in the Gnostic case, but the specific symbolic tradition of Judaism recommends historical rather than cosmological speculations. Again, this is the tradition in which Joachim belongs. The decisive novelty is only that, under the circumstances of church reform, the metastatic transformation of reality -- the creation of a new world -- is not awaited at the end of times but experienced in the present. Matthias Riedl - Joachim of Fiore and Gnosticism // Metastasis literally means the spread of cancer to other parts of the body. To Voegelin, the metastatic apocalypse means “all unrealistically expected transformations of human beings, society, or the structure of existence.” Promise Hsu - The Reality of Politics and the Relevance of Voegelin (Part I) // In spite of the diverse nature of the various Gnostic sects and teachers, certain fundamental elements serve to bind these groups together under the loose heading of “Gnosticism” or “Gnosis.” Chief among these elements is a certain manner of “anti-cosmic world rejection” that has often been mistaken for mere dualism. According to the Gnostics, this world, the material cosmos, is the result of a primordial error on the part of a supra-cosmic, supremely divine being, usually called Sophia (Wisdom) or simply the Logos. This being is described as the final emanation of a divine hierarchy, called the Plêrôma or “Fullness,” at the head of which resides the supreme God, the One beyond Being. The error of Sophia, which is usually identified as a reckless desire to know the transcendent God, leads to the hypostatization of her desire in the form of a semi-divine and essentially ignorant creature known as the Demiurge (Greek: dêmiourgos, “craftsman”), or Ialdabaoth, who is responsible for the formation of the material cosmos. This act of craftsmanship is actually an imitation of the realm of the Pleroma, but the Demiurge is ignorant of this, and hubristically declares himself the only existing God. At this point, the Gnostic revisionary critique of the Hebrew Scriptures begins, as well as the general rejection of this world as a product of error and ignorance, and the positing of a higher world, to which the human soul will eventually return. However, when all is said and done, one finds that the error of Sophia and the begetting of the inferior cosmos are occurrences that follow a certain law of necessity, and that the so-called “dualism” of the divine and the earthly is really a reflection and expression of the defining tension that constitutes the being of humanity—the human being. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP) - Gnosticism

* Apocalypse and gnosis ['Апокалипсис и гносис']. The short answer to this view is that apocalypse and gnosis usually go together. It is common in religious systems for eschatology to be expressed on both the personal and the universal level. In other words, the fate of the world and the fate of individual human souls tend to follow parallel patterns, and Gnostic theology is no different. Manicheanism, for instance, had a particularly elaborate cosmology describing how the divine substance was trapped in the world of matter, forming the secret core of human souls. The hope Manicheanism offered was that someday this divine essence will all finally be released in a terminal conflagration. Details vary among Gnostic systems, but they generally hold that the creation of the world shattered God. History and the world will end when the fragments are reassembled. Often this takes the form of the reintegration of the Primal Adam, the cosmic giant whose fragments are our souls. While this aspect of gnosis can also be taken metaphorically, the fact is that Gnostic millenarianism has not been at all rare in history. Sufi-influenced Islamic rulers, from the Old Man of the Mountain {Hassan-i Sabbah, founder of the Nizari Isma'ili state and its fidā'i military group known as the Order of Assassins / Rashid ad-Din Sinan, a leader of the Syrian branch of the Nizari Isma'ili state (the Assassins), and a figure in the history of the Crusades} to the last Shah of Iran {??}, have a long tradition of ascribing eschatological significance to their reigns. Kabbalah has an explosive messianic tradition that has strongly influenced Jewish history more than once. In Christian Europe, the Heresy of the Free Spirit in the thirteenth century offered Gnostic illumination to the educated of the West in a package that came with the hope of an imminent new age of the spirit. (...) Whatever else can be said about gnosis, it is clearly not hostile to apocalyptic thinking. In the light of this history, it is hard to accept Bloom’s complacent assertion that gnosis bears no guilt because it has never been in power. It has frequently been in power, though rarely under its own name. There is even a good argument to be made that the Nazi regime was fundamentally Gnostic. There is, in fact, a logical connection between gnosis and apocalypticism. Apocalypses come in various flavors. Some are hopeful, some are fearful, some are actually conservative. There is also an apocalypse of loathing, of contempt, and hatred for the world and its history. We can clearly see such a mood in societies that nearly destroy themselves, such as Pol Pot’s Cambodia, but it has also informed less extreme revolutions and upheavals throughout history. Gnosis has much in common with this mood. Gnostics at best seek to be reconciled with the world. Some seek to purify themselves of it. Others look forward to its destruction in a grossly literal fashion. More than a few, it seems, have been willing to help the process along. John J. Reilly - GETTING OVER THE END OF THE WORLD