PEOPLE (REL.)

* James the Just [Иаков, апостол от 70] (d 62). James the Just, or a variation of James, brother of the Lord, was "a brother of Jesus", according to the New Testament. He was an early leader of the Jerusalem Church of the Apostolic Age. He died as a martyr in AD 62 or 69 after being stoned to death by order of High Priest Ananus ben Ananus {one of the main leaders of the Great Revolt of Judea, which erupted in 66 CE}.

* Прохор [апостол от 70; Procorus] (I). Про́хор — апостол от семидесяти, один из семи диаконов, выбранных апостолами. Церковное предание сообщает, что Прохор был спутником апостола Петра и впоследствии был епископом Никомедии и пострадал за Христа в Антиохии. Также из Предания известно о Прохоре, ученике и спутнике апостола Иоанна Богослова, который записывал за ним текст Откровения. Этому Прохору приписывают авторство сказания о жизни и чудесах Иоанна Богослова, от Успения Богородицы и до его смерти (помещается в Четьи-Минее Димитрия Ростовского под 26 сентября). // Acts 6:1-5 NIV The Choosing of the Seven. 6 In those days when the number of disciples was increasing, the Hellenistic Jews among them complained against the Hebraic Jews because their widows were being overlooked in the daily distribution of food. 2 So the Twelve gathered all the disciples together and said, “It would not be right for us to neglect the ministry of the word of God in order to wait on tables. 3 Brothers and sisters, choose seven men from among you who are known to be full of the Spirit and wisdom. We will turn this responsibility over to them 4 and will give our attention to prayer and the ministry of the word.” 5 This proposal pleased the whole group. They chose Stephen, a man full of faith and of the Holy Spirit; also Philip, Procorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolas from Antioch, a convert to Judaism.

* Дионисий Ареопагит [Dionysius the Areopagite] (ум ок 96). Диони́сий Ареопаги́т (греч. Διονύσιος ο Αρεοπαγίτης) — афинский мыслитель, христианский святой. Согласно церковному преданию, Дионисий Ареопагит был учеником ап. Павла (Деян. 17:34) и первым епископом Афин. Согласно житию, он был послан апостолом Кли́ментом во главе миссии проповедников в Галлию, где и погиб от гонений Домициана около 96 года. Под его именем написаны сочинения, ставшие публично известными в V веке. В XVI веке эти сочинения подверглись наибольшей критике, после чего начало утверждаться мнение, что они, возможно, испытали сильное влияние неоплатонизма и имеют псевдоэпиграфи́ческое происхождение. Сочинения оказали огромное влияние на дальнейшую христианскую философию. Единого мнения об авторстве этих сочинений и точной дате их создания нет. В науке эти тексты известны как Ареопагитики. На Дионисия Ареопагита в качестве непререкаемого авторитета ссылается протопоп Аввакум в своём автобиографичном «Житии»: «Сей Диони́сий науче́н ве́ре Христо́ве от Па́вла апо́стола, живы́й во Афи́нех, пре́жде, да́же не прийти́ в ве́ру Христо́ву, хи́трость имы́й исчита́ти бе́ги небе́сныя; егда́ ж ве́рова Христо́ви, вся сия́ вмени́х бы́ти я́ко уме́ты».

* Ignatius of Antioch [Ignatius Theophorus, "the God-bearing"; Игнатий Богоносец, Игнатий Антиохийский] (d c 108/140). Ignatius of Antioch (Greek: Ignátios Antiokheías), also known as Ignatius Theophorus (Greek: Ignátios ho Theophóros, lit. "the God-bearing"), was an early Christian writer and Patriarch of Antioch. While en route to Rome, where he met his martyrdom, Ignatius wrote a series of letters. This correspondence now forms a central part of a later collection of works known to be authored by the Apostolic Fathers. He is considered to be one of the three most important of these, together with Clement of Rome and Polycarp. His letters also serve as an example of early Christian theology. Important topics they address include ecclesiology, the sacraments, and the role of bishops. Life. Nothing is known of Ignatius' life apart from what may be inferred internally from his letters, except from later (sometimes spurious) traditions. It is said Ignatius converted to Christianity at a young age. Tradition identifies Ignatius, along with his friend Polycarp, as disciples of John the Apostle. Later in his life, Ignatius was chosen to serve as Bishop of Antioch; the fourth-century Church historian Eusebius writes that Ignatius succeeded Evodius. Theodoret of Cyrrhus claimed that St. Peter himself left directions that Ignatius be appointed to the episcopal see of Antioch. Ignatius called himself Theophorus (God Bearer). A tradition arose that he was one of the children whom Jesus Christ took in his arms and blessed. Circumstances of martyrdom. Instead of being executed in his home town of Antioch, Ignatius was escorted to Rome by a company of ten Roman soldiers: "From Syria even unto Rome I fight with beasts, both by land and sea, both by night and day, being bound to ten leopards, I mean a band of soldiers..."— Ignatius to the Romans Chapter 5. Scholars consider Ignatius' transport to Rome unusual, since those persecuted as Christians would be expected to be punished locally. Stevan Davies has pointed out that "no other examples exist from the Flavian age of any prisoners except citizens or prisoners of war being brought to Rome for execution." (...) Route of travel to Rome. During the journey to Rome, Ignatius and his entourage of soldiers made a number of lengthy stops in Asia Minor, deviating from the most direct land route from Antioch to Rome. (...) During the journey, the soldiers seem to have allowed Ignatius to meet with entire congregations of Christians while in chains, at least while he was in Philadelphia (cf. Ign. Phil. 7), and numerous Christian visitors and messengers were allowed to meet with him on a one-on-one basis. These messengers allowed Ignatius to send six letters to nearby churches, and one to Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna. These aspects of Ignatius' martyrdom are also regarded by scholars as unusual. (...) Date of martyrdom. Due to the sparse and fragmentary nature of the documentation of Ignatius' life and martyrdom, the date of his death is subject to a significant amount of uncertainty. Tradition places the martyrdom of Ignatius in the reign of Trajan, who was emperor of Rome from 98 to 117 AD. But the earliest source for this Trajanic date is the 4th century church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, who is regarded by some modern scholars as an unreliable source for chronological information regarding the early church. Eusebius had an ideological interest in dating church leaders as early as possible, and ensuring that there were no gaps in succession between the original apostles of Jesus and the leaders of the church in his day. While many scholars accept the traditional dating of Ignatius' martyrdom under Trajan, others have argued for a somewhat later date. Richard Pervo dated Ignatius' death to 135–140 AD. British classicist Timothy Barnes has argued for a date in the 140s AD, on the grounds that Ignatius seems to have quoted a work of the Gnostic Ptolemy in one of his epistles, who only became active in the 130s. Death and aftermath. Ignatius himself wrote that he would be thrown to the beasts, and in the fourth century Eusebius reports tradition that this came to pass, which is then repeated by Jerome who is the first to explicitly mention "lions." John Chrysostom is the first to allude to the Colosseum as the place of Ignatius' martyrdom. Contemporary scholars are uncertain that any of these authors had sources other than Ignatius' own writings. (...) The Martyrium Ignatii. There is a purported eye-witness account of his martyrdom, named the Martyrium Ignatii. It is presented as being an eye-witness account for the church of Antioch, attributed to Ignatius' companions, Philo of Cilicia, deacon at Tarsus, and Rheus Agathopus, a Syrian. Its most reliable manuscript is the 10th-century Codex Colbertinus (Paris), in which the Martyrium closes the collection. The Martyrium presents the confrontation of the bishop Ignatius with Trajan at Antioch, a familiar trope of Acta of the martyrs, and many details of the long, partly overland voyage to Rome. The Synaxarium of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria says that he was thrown to the wild beasts that devoured him and rent him to pieces. (...) Authenticity. Ever since the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, the authenticity of all the Ignatian epistles has come under intense scrutiny. John Calvin called the epistles "rubbish published under Ignatius’ name." (...) Theology. Christology. Ignatius is known to have taught the deity of Christ. (...) He stressed the value of the Eucharist, calling it a "medicine of immortality" (Ignatius to the Ephesians 20:2). The very strong desire for bloody martyrdom in the arena, which Ignatius expresses rather graphically in places, may seem quite odd to the modern reader. An examination of his theology of soteriology shows that he regarded salvation as one being free from the powerful fear of death and thus to face martyrdom bravely. Ignatius is claimed to be the first known Christian writer to argue in favor of Christianity's replacement of the Sabbath with the Lord's Day. (...) Ecclesiology. Ignatius is the earliest known Christian writer to emphasize loyalty to a single bishop in each city (or diocese) who is assisted by both presbyters (priests) and deacons. Earlier writings only mention either bishops or presbyters. (...) He is also responsible for the first known use of the Greek word katholikos (καθολικός), or Catholic, meaning "universal", "complete" and "whole" to describe the Church. (...) Parallels with Peregrinus Proteus. Several scholars have noted that there are striking similarities between Ignatius and the Christian-turned-Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus, as described in Lucian's famous satire The Passing of Peregrinus: 1) both Ignatius and Peregrinus show a morbid eagerness to die 2) both characters are, or have been, Christians; 3) both are imprisoned by Roman authorities; 4) upon the arrest of both prisoners, Christians from all over Asia Minor come to visit them and bring them gifts (cf. Peregr. 12–13); 5) both prisoners sent letters to several Greek cities shortly before their deaths as "testaments, counsels, and laws", appointing "couriers" and "ambassadors" for the purpose. It is generally believed that these parallels are the result of Lucian intentionally copying traits from Ignatius and applying them to his satire of Peregrinus. If the dependence of Lucian on the Ignatian epistles is accepted, then this places an upper limit on the date of the epistles: around the 160s AD, just before The Passing of Peregrinus was written. Игнатий Богоносец. Игна́тий Богоно́сец (Игнатий Антиохийский; 20 декабря 107/112, Рим) — муж апостольский, священномученик древней Церкви, третий епископ Антиохийский после апостола Петра и Евода, ученик Иоанна Богослова; на Антиохийской кафедре предположительно с 68 года. Cвятой Православной и Католической церквей.

* Polycarp [of Smyrna; Поликарп Смирнский] (69-155). Polycarp (Greek: Polýkarpos; Latin: Polycarpus) was a Christian bishop of Smyrna. According to the Martyrdom of Polycarp, he died a martyr, bound and burned at the stake, then stabbed when the fire failed to consume his body. Polycarp is regarded as a saint and Church Father in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches. His name means "much fruit" in Greek. Both Irenaeus {130-202} and Tertullian {c 155-c 240} say that Polycarp had been a disciple of John the Apostle, one of Jesus' disciples. In On Illustrious Men, Jerome {of Stridon 342-420} writes that Polycarp was a disciple of John the Apostle and that John had ordained him as a bishop of Smyrna. Polycarp is regarded as one of three chief Apostolic Fathers, along with Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch. Surviving writings and early accounts. The sole surviving work attributed to him is the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, a mosaic of references to the Greek Scriptures, which, along with an account of The Martyrdom of Polycarp, forms part of the collection of writings called Apostolic Fathers. After the Acts of the Apostles, which describes the death of Stephen {??}, the Martyrdom is considered one of the earliest genuine accounts of a Christian martyrdom. Charles E. Hill argues extensively that the teachings Irenaeus ascribes to a certain apostolic "presbyter" throughout his writings represent lost teachings of Polycarp, his teacher. Life. The chief sources of information concerning the life of Polycarp are The Martyrdom of Polycarp, Adversus Haereses, The Epistle to Florinus, the epistles of Ignatius, and Polycarp's own letter to the Philippians. In 1999, the Harris Fragments, a collection of 3rd- to 6th-century Coptic texts that mention Polycarp, were published. (...) Importance. Polycarp occupies an important place in the history of the early Christian Church. He is among the earliest Christians whose writings survived. Jerome wrote that Polycarp was a "disciple of the apostle John and by him ordained presbyter of Smyrna". He was an elder of an important congregation that was a large contributor to the founding of the Christian Church. He is from an era whose orthodoxy is widely accepted by Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox Churches, Church of God groups, Sabbatarian groups, mainstream Protestants and Catholics alike. According to Eusebius {~265-340}, Polycrates of Ephesus cited the example of Polycarp in defense of local practices during the quartodeciman controversy. Irenaeus, who as a young man had heard Polycarp preach, described him as "a man who was of much greater weight, and a more steadfast witness of truth, than Valentinus, and Marcion, and the rest of the heretics". Polycarp lived in an age after the deaths of the apostles, when a variety of interpretations of the sayings of Jesus were being preached. His role was to authenticate orthodox teachings through his connection with the apostle John: "a high value was attached to the witness Polycarp could give as to the genuine tradition of old apostolic doctrine" "his testimony condemning as offensive novelties the figments of the heretical teachers". Irenaeus states (iii. 3) that on Polycarp's visit to Rome, his testimony converted many disciples of Marcion and Valentinus. Поликарп Смирнский. Полика́рп (ок. 70 — 23 февраля 156 года) — епископ Смирнский, ученик апостола Иоанна, им поставленный во епископа, один из апостольских мужей, христианский мученик. Причислен к лику святых в Православной и Католической церквях. По выражению Иеронима, он был «вождём всей Азии» в христианстве. Образовал около себя круг учеников, из которых особенно чтил его память Ириней Лионский.

* Justin Martyr [Иустин Философ, Юстин Мученик] (c 100-c 165). Justin Martyr was an early Christian apologist and philosopher. Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and a dialogue did survive. The First Apology, his most well known text, passionately defends the morality of the Christian life, and provides various ethical and philosophical arguments to convince the Roman emperor, Antoninus, to abandon the persecution of the Church. Further, he also indicates, as St. Augustine would later regarding the "true religion" that predated Christianity, that the "seeds of Christianity" (manifestations of the Logos acting in history) actually predated Christ's incarnation. This notion allows him to claim many historical Greek philosophers (including Socrates and Plato), in whose works he was well studied, as unknowing Christians. Justin was martyred, alongside some of his students, and is venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church, the Anglican Church,[6] the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. Justin, like others, thought that the Greek philosophers had derived, if not borrowed, the most essential elements of truth found in their teaching from the Old Testament. But at the same time he adopted the Stoic doctrine of the "seminal word," and so philosophy was to him an operation of the Word—in fact, through his identification of the Word with Christ, it was brought into immediate connection with him. Thus he does not scruple to declare that Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians (Apol., i. 46, ii. 10). His aim was to emphasize the absolute significance of Christ, so that all that ever existed of virtue and truth may be referred to him. The old philosophers and law-givers had only a part of the Logos, while the whole appears in Christ. While the gentile peoples, seduced by devils, had deserted the true God for idols, the Jews and Samaritans possessed the revelation given through the prophets and awaited the Messiah. However, the law, while containing commandments intended to promote the true fear of God, had other prescriptions of a purely pedagogic nature, which necessarily ceased when Christ, their end, appeared; of such temporary and merely relative regulations were circumcision, animal sacrifices, the Sabbath, and the laws as to food. Through Christ, the abiding law of God has been fully proclaimed. In his character, as the teacher of the new doctrine and promulgator of the new law, lies the essential nature of his redeeming work. ???? The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia notes that scholars have differed on whether Justin's writings on the nature of God were meant to express his firm opinion on points of doctrine, or to speculate on these matters. Specific points Justin addressed include that the Logos is "numerically distinct from the Father" though "born of the very substance of the Father," and that "through the Word, God has made everything." Justin used the metaphor of fire to describe the Logos as spreading like a flame, rather than "dividing" the substance of the Father. He also defended the Holy Spirit as a member of the Trinity, as well as the birth of Jesus to Mary when she was a virgin. The Encyclopedia states that Justin places the genesis of the Logos as a voluntary act of the Father at the beginning of creation, noting that this is an "unfortunate" conflict with later Christian teachings. ????

* Евдокия Илиопольская [Eudokia of Heliopolis] (ум ок 160-170). Евдокия Илиопольская — раннехристианская святая, почитаемая как преподобномученица. Прославившаяся добродетелями и аскетизмом. Житие сообщает, что Евдокия имела видение, что ей суждено пострадать за Христа. Она взяла Святые Дары {i.e. she was prepared to die (??)} и добровольно отдала себя в руки воинов. "Тогда наместник велел повесить её на дереве и четырём воинам жестоко бичевать. Воины взяли её, обнажили до пояса и повесили. Когда её раздевали, с груди её спала часть Пречистого и Животворящего Тела Господня, взятая ею при выходе из монастыря. Слуги, не зная, что это такое, подняли и принесли наместнику. Протянув руку, он хотел взять её, и тотчас часть Пречистого Тела Владыки превратилась в огонь, и великий пламень попалил слуг мучителя и повредил левое плечо самому наместнику."— Димитрий Ростовский. Житие и страдание святой преподобной мученицы Евдокии. После этого на наместника «ниспал <…> огонь, как молния, и умертвил его, опалив тело, как головню», но по молитве Евдокии он был воскрешён и стал христианином. После этого Евдокия продолжила жить в своём монастыре и претерпела мученическую смерть (усечена мечом) около 160—170 годов.* Ириней Лионский [Irenaeus] (ок 130-202). Ирине́й Лио́нский (лат. Irenaeus Lugdunensis),  — один из первых Отцов Церкви, ведущий богослов II века и апологет, второй епископ Лиона. Принадлежал к малоазийской богословской школе. Его сочинения способствовали формированию учения раннего христианства. Считается, что он был учеником Поликарпа Смирнского. Самое известное сочинение Иринея Лионского «Против ересей» представляет собой полемику с гностицизмом, который стал для раннего христианства первым богословским вызовом. Католическая церковь считает Иринея Лионского наряду с Климентом Римским и Игнатием Антиохийским инициатором формирования учения о папском примате. Сочинения Иринея Лионского являются первым свидетельством признания канонического характера четырёх Евангелий. Ириней Лионский является одним из самых ранних отцов церкви, тщательно разработавший мариологию. Ириней использует Священное Писание как авторитетное доказательство в своих спорах с гностиками. В своих трудах он подчёркивает важность следования апостольской традиции и каноническим новозаветным текстам; призывает не пренебрегать и «еврейской Библией». Христиане Малой Азии во времена Иринея Лионского предпочитали Евангелие от Иоанна. Евангелие от Матфея в то время употреблялось повсеместным образом. В своих сочинениях он говорил о догматическом единстве четырёх Евангелий, отрицая мнение Маркиона, который признавал только Евангелие от Луки. Св. Ириней отбросил все гностические Евангелия, которые использовали гностики во II веке, и объявил 4 книги — Евангелие от Матфея, от Марка, от Луки и от Иоанна — авторитетным Писанием Церкви.

* Melito of Sardis [Мелитон Сардийский] (100-180; bishop). Melito of Sardis was the bishop of Sardis near Smyrna in western Anatolia, and a great authority in early Christianity. Melito held a foremost place in terms of bishops in Asia due to his personal influence and his literary works, most of which have been lost. What has been recovered, however, has provided a great insight into Christianity during the second century. Jerome, speaking of the Old Testament canon established by Melito, quotes Tertullian to the effect that he was esteemed as a prophet by many of the faithful. This work by Tertullian has been lost but Jerome quotes pieces regarding Melito for the high regard in which he was held at that time. Melito is remembered for his work on developing the first Old Testament Canon. (...) Aside from the liturgical function of the Peri Pascha, this early Christian document has traditionally been perceived as a somewhat reliable indicator concerning how early Christians felt toward Judaism in general. The Peri Pascha provides an accurate description of Christian feelings towards Jews at the time and their opinion of Judaism. The text is not an all-out attack on the Jewish people;[citation needed] however, the Jewish people are explicitly blamed for killing Christ. Melito does not blame Pontius Pilate for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. However, the goal was not to incite anti-Semitic thoughts in Christians but to bring light to what truly happened during the Passion of Jesus Christ {smarmy apologetics ??}.[citation needed] Another consideration to take note of is that perhaps Melito was in a competition with the local Jewish community for pagan converts. Wanting to differentiate the Christian community from the Jewish one since the two were very similar, it was more a matter of strengthening the Christian sense of distinctiveness than an all out attack on the local Jews of Sardis. Thus, Melito is widely remembered for his supersessionism. This view basically assumes that the Old Covenant is fulfilled in the person of Jesus Christ. This view of supersessionism also assumes that the Jewish people fail to fulfill the Old Covenant due to their lack of belief in Jesus Christ. (...) Melito's high Christology. Emphasizing, like John, the unity of Christ and the Father, Melito declared that Christ is at once God and a perfect man. Having two essences while being one and the same, his godhead was demonstrated by way of all of the signs and miracles he performed after being baptized. Successfully managing to hide his divinity from the world before that central event occurred with John the Baptist, Jesus felt the pangs of hunger just like everyone else. Writing against Marcion, Melito focused on Christ's divinity and humanity in order to counter the claim that Jesus was simply and uniquely divine; having no material counterpart {Marcion - docetism ??}. Melito does not anthropomorphize the divine nature of Christ and keeps the attributes of the divine nature and the human nature wholly separate. While he describes the attributes of each nature separately, he also speaks of the two natures of Christ combined. The form of speech used is that of two natures in one Christ. According to Melito, Jesus Christ was both entirely human and entirely divine. Old Testament canon. {Main article: Melito's canon} Melito gave the first Christian list of the canon in the Old Testament. In his canon he excludes the book of Esther and the Apocrypha.

* Irenaeus [Ириней Лионский] (c 130-c 202). Irenaeus was a Greek bishop noted for his role in guiding and expanding Christian communities in what is now the south of France and, more widely, for the development of Christian theology by combating heresy and defining orthodoxy. Originating from Smyrna, he had seen and heard the preaching of Polycarp, the last known living connection with the Apostles, who in turn was said to have heard John the Evangelist. Chosen as bishop of Lugdunum, now Lyon, his best-known work is Against Heresies, often cited as Adversus Haereses, a refutation of gnosticism, in particular that of Valentinus. To counter the doctrines of the gnostic sects claiming secret wisdom, he offered three pillars of orthodoxy: the scriptures, the tradition handed down from the apostles, and the teaching of the apostles' successors {the Church Fathers}. Intrinsic to his writing is that the surest source of Christian guidance is the church of Rome, and he is the earliest surviving witness to regard all four of the now-canonical gospels as essential. He is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, which celebrates his feast on 28 June, and in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, which celebrates the feast on 23 August. Antichrist. Irenaeus identified the Antichrist, another name of the apostate Man of Sin, with Daniel's Little Horn and John's Beast of Revelation 13. He sought to apply other expressions to the Antichrist, such as "the abomination of desolation," mentioned by Christ (Matt. 24:15) and the "king of a most fierce countenance," in Gabriel's explanation of the Little Horn of Daniel 8. But he is not very clear how "the sacrifice and the libation shall be taken away" during the "half-week," or three and one-half years of the Antichrist's reign. Under the notion that the Antichrist, as a single individual, might be of Jewish origin, {Unlike Irenaeus, however, Tertullian does not consider the Antichrist to be a Jew sitting in a Jewish temple at Jerusalem (Tertullian)}, he fancies that the mention of "Dan," in Jeremiah 8:16, and the omission of that name from those tribes listed in Revelation 7, might indicate the Antichrist's tribe. This surmise became the foundation of a series of subsequent interpretations by other students of Bible prophecy. "Time, times, and half a time". Like the other early church fathers, Irenaeus interpreted the three and one-half "times" of the Little Horn of Daniel 7 as three and one-half literal years. Antichrist's three and a half years of sitting in the temple are placed immediately before the Second Coming of Christ. They are identified as the second half of the "one week" of Daniel 9. Irenaeus says nothing of the seventy weeks; we do not know whether he placed the "one week" at the end of the seventy or whether he had a gap. 666. Irenaeus is the first of the church fathers to consider the mystic number 666. While Irenaeus did propose some solutions of this numerical riddle, his interpretation was quite reserved. Thus, he cautiously states: "But knowing the sure number declared by Scripture, that is six hundred sixty and six, let them await, in the first place, the division of the kingdom into ten; then, in the next place, when these kings are reigning, and beginning to set their affairs in order, and advance their kingdom, [let them learn] to acknowledge that he who shall come claiming the kingdom for himself, and shall terrify those men of whom we have been speaking, have a name containing the aforesaid number, is truly the abomination of desolation." Although Irenaeus did speculate upon three names to symbolize this mystical number, namely Euanthas, Teitan, and Lateinos, nevertheless he was content to believe that the Antichrist would arise some time in the future after the fall of Rome and then the meaning of the number would be revealed. Millennium. See also: Millennialism. Irenaeus declares that the Antichrist's future three-and-a-half-year reign, when he sits in the temple at Jerusalem, will be terminated by the second advent, with the resurrection of the just, the destruction of the wicked, and the millennial reign of the righteous. The general resurrection and the judgment follow the descent of the New Jerusalem at the end of the millennial kingdom. Irenaeus calls those "heretics" who maintain that the saved are immediately glorified in the kingdom to come after death, before their resurrection. He avers that the millennial kingdom and the resurrection are actualities, not allegories, the first resurrection introducing this promised kingdom in which the risen saints are described as ruling over the renewed earth during the millennium, between the two resurrections. Irenaeus held to the old Jewish tradition that the first six days of creation week were typical of the first six thousand years of human history, with Antichrist manifesting himself in the sixth period. And he expected the millennial kingdom to begin with the second coming of Christ to destroy the wicked and inaugurate, for the righteous, the reign of the kingdom of God during the seventh thousand years, the millennial Sabbath, as signified by the Sabbath of creation week. In common with many of the fathers, Irenaeus did not distinguish between the new earth re-created in its eternal state—the thousand years of Revelation 20—when the saints are with Christ after His second advent, and the Jewish traditions of the Messianic kingdom. Hence, he applies Biblical and traditional ideas to his descriptions of this earth during the millennium, throughout the closing chapters of Book 5. This conception of the reign of resurrected and translated saints with Christ on this earth during the millennium—popularly known as chiliasm—was the increasingly prevailing belief of this time. Incipient distortions due to the admixture of current traditions, which figure in the extreme forms of chiliasm, caused a reaction against the earlier interpretations of Bible prophecies. Irenaeus was not looking for a Jewish kingdom. He interpreted Israel as the Christian church, the spiritual seed of Abraham. At times his expressions are highly fanciful. He tells, for instance, of a prodigious fertility of this earth during the millennium, after the resurrection of the righteous, "when also the creation, having been renovated and set free, shall fructify with an abundance of all kinds of food." In this connection, he attributes to Christ the saying about the vine with ten thousand branches, and the ear of wheat with ten thousand grains, and so forth, which he quotes from Papias of Hierapolis. Rapture. Often Irenaeus is grouped with other early church fathers as teaching historic premillennialism {no radical theological distinction between Israel and the Church} which maintain a belief in the earthly reign of Christ but differ from {<>} dispensational premillennialism {Israel and the Church are distinct entities; pretribulational return of Christ, which believes that Jesus will return to take up Christians into heaven by means of a rapture immediately before a seven-year worldwide tribulation} in their view of the rapture as to when the translation of saints occurs. In Against Heresies (V.XXIX.1) he says "And therefore, when in the end the Church shall be suddenly caught up from this, it is said, 'There shall be tribulation such as has not been since the beginning, neither shall be.'" // Against Heresies (Irenaeus). Against Heresies, or On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis, sometimes referred to by its Latin title Adversus Haereses, is a work of Christian theology written in Greek about the year 180 by Irenaeus, the bishop of Lugdunum (now Lyon in France). In it, Irenaeus identifies and describes several schools of Gnosticism, as well as other schools of Christian thought, and contrasts their beliefs with his conception of orthodox Christianity. Until the discovery of the Library of Nag Hammadi in 1945, Against Heresies was the best surviving contemporary description of Gnosticism. Today, the treatise remains historically important as one of the first unambiguous attestations of the canonical gospel texts and some of the Pauline epistles. Irenaeus cites from most of the New Testament canon, as well as the noncanonical works 1 Clement and The Shepherd of Hermas; however, he makes no references to Philemon, 2 Peter, 3 John or Jude – four of the shortest epistles. Only fragments of the original text in ancient Greek remain today, but many complete copies in Latin, the dates of writing of which remain unknown (third or fifth century), still survive. Books IV and V exist in their entirety in a literal version in Armenian. [K12]

* Климент Александрийский [Clement of Alexandria] (ок 150-ок 215). Кли́мент Александри́йский (лат. Clemens Alexandrinus, Тит Флавий Климент, лат. Titus Flavius Clemens) — христианский богослов, апологет, проповедник и философ, руководитель Александрийской богословской школы, возглавлявший её до Оригена. Его учениками были Ориген и Александр Иерусалимский. Он обратился в христианство будучи образованным человеком, знакомым с греческой философией и литературой. Как показывают три его основных произведения, Климент находился под влиянием эллинистической философии, в особенности Платона и стоиков, в большей степени, чем любой другой христианский мыслитель своего времени. Его тайные работы, которые существуют только в виде фрагментов, предполагают, что он также был знаком с дохристианским иудейским эзотеризмом и гностицизмом. В одной из своих работ он утверждал, что греческая философия зародилась среди не-греков, утверждая, что и Платон, и Пифагор были обучены египетскими учеными. Климента обычно считают одним из Отцов Церкви. Clement of Alexandria. Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria, was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature. As his three major works demonstrate, Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular, by Plato and the Stoics. His secret works, which exist only in fragments, suggest that he was familiar with pre-Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism as well. In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non-Greeks, claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars. Clement is usually regarded as a Church Father. He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity, Eastern Catholicism, Ethiopian Christianity, and Anglicanism. He was revered in Western Catholicism until 1586, when his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of Baronius. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially stopped any veneration of Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century. Paedagogus. This work's title, translatable as "tutor", refers to Christ as the teacher of all humans, and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children. It is not simply instructional: Clement intends to show how the Christian should respond to the Love of God authentically. Following Plato (Republic 4:441), he divides life into three elements: character, actions, and passions. The first having been dealt with in the Protrepticus, he devotes the Paedagogus to reflections on Christ's role in teaching humans to act morally and to control their passions. Despite its explicitly Christian nature, Clement's work draws on Stoic philosophy and pagan literature; Homer, alone, is cited more than sixty times in the work. Although Christ, like a human, is made in the image of God, he alone shares the likeness of God the Father. Christ is both sinless and apathetic, and thus by striving to imitate Christ, one can achieve salvation. To Clement, sin is involuntary, and thus irrational [άλογον], removed only through the wisdom of the Logos. God's guidance away from sin is thus a manifestation of God's universal love for mankind. The word play on λόγος and άλογον is characteristic of Clement's writing, and may be rooted in the Epicurean belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify. Clement argues for the equality of sexes, on the grounds that salvation is extended to all humans equally. Unusually, he suggests that Christ is neither female nor male, and that God the Father has both female and male aspects: the eucharist is described as milk from the breast (Christ) of the Father. Clement is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church and he provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the Paedagogus were influenced by Gnosticism, however, later in the work, he argues against the Gnostics that faith, not esoteric knowledge, is required for salvation. According to Clement, it is through faith in Christ that one is enlightened and comes to know God. // The 42 Hermetic Books Cited by Clement of Alexandria (ca. 150-215 A.D.)

* Ипполит Римский [Hippolytus of Rome] (ок 170-ок 235). Святой Ипполи́т Ри́мский — один из самых плодовитых раннехристианских авторов, мученик, второй антипапа (217/218 — 235). На Западе праздник в его честь отмечается 13 августа, у православных — 30 января (12 февраля). // священномученик Ипполит Римский - Обличение на иудеев // Hippolytus of Rome. Hippolytus (c. 170–235 AD) was one of the most important second-third century Christian theologians, whose provenance, identity and corpus remain elusive to scholars and historians. Suggested communities include Palestine, Egypt, Anatolia, Rome and regions of the mideast. The best historians of literature in the ancient church, including Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome, openly confess they cannot name where Hippolytus the biblical commentator and theologian served in leadership. They had read his works but did not possess evidence of his community. Photios I of Constantinople describes him in his Bibliotheca (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, who was said to be a disciple of Polycarp, and from the context of this passage it is supposed that he suggested that Hippolytus so styled himself. This assertion is doubtful. One older theory asserts he came into conflict with the popes of his time and seems to have headed a schismatic group as a rival to the Bishop of Rome, thus becoming an Antipope. In this view, he opposed the Roman Popes who softened the penitential system to accommodate the large number of new pagan converts. However, he was reconciled to the Church before he died as a martyr. Starting in the fourth century, various legends arose about him, identifying him as a priest of the Novatianist schism or as a soldier converted by Saint Lawrence. He has also been confused with another martyr of the same name. Pope Pius IV identifies him as "Saint Hippolytus, Bishop of Pontus" who was martyred in the reign of Severus Alexander through his inscription on a statue found at the Church of Saint Lawrence in Rome and kept at the Vatican as photographed and published in Bunsen. Novatianism was an Early Christian sect devoted to the theologian Novatian (c. 200–258) that held a strict view that refused readmission to communion of Lapsi (those baptized Christians who had denied their faith or performed the formalities of a ritual sacrifice to the pagan gods under the pressures of the persecution sanctioned by Emperor Decius in AD 250). The Church of Rome declared the Novatianists heretical following the letters of Saint Cyprian of Carthage. Eschatology. Hippolytus is an important figure in the development of Christian eschatology. In his biblical compendium and topical study On Christ and the Antichrist and in his Commentary on the Prophet Daniel Hippolytus gave his interpretation of the second advent of Christ. With the onset of persecutions during the reign of Septimius Severus, many early Christian writers treated topics of apocalyptic eschatology. On Christ and the Antichrist is one of the earliest works. It is thought Hippolytus was generally influenced by Irenaeus. However, unlike Irenaeus, Hippolytus focuses on the meaning of prophecy for the Church in his own time. Of the dogmatic works, On Christ and the Antichrist survives in a complete state and was probably written about 202. Hippolytus follows the long-established usage in interpreting Daniel's seventy prophetic weeks to be weeks of literal years. Hippolytus gave an explanation of Daniel's paralleling prophecies of chapters 2 and 7, which he, as with the other fathers, specifically relates to the Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. His interpretation of events and their significance is Christological. He stated that Rome would be partitioned into ten kingdoms and these in turn would be followed by the rise of the dread Antichrist, who would oppress the saints. This would be ended by Christ's Second Advent, the resurrection of the righteous, and the destruction of said Antichrist. After which would come the judgment and burning up of the wicked.  Hippolytus did not subscribe to the belief that the Second Coming was imminent. In his commentary on Daniel he criticizes those who predict the Second Coming in the near future, and then says that six thousand years must pass from Creation before the Second Coming {<> 7000/1492}. He also says that Christ was born 5500 years after Adam, so 500 years have to pass from the birth of Christ "to the consummation of the six thousand years, and in this way the end will be" {~492}. [K13]

* Tertullian [theologist, premillennialism, Montanism; Тертуллиан] (c 155-c 240).Tertullian (Latin: Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus)  was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa. Of Berber and Phoenician origin, he was the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature. He was an early Christian apologist and a polemicist against heresy, including contemporary Christian Gnosticism. Tertullian has been called "the father of Latin Christianity" and "the founder of Western theology." Though conservative in his worldview, Tertullian originated new theological concepts and advanced the development of early Church doctrine. He is perhaps most famous for being the first writer in Latin known to use the term trinity (Latin: trinitas). Unlike many Church fathers, Tertullian was never recognized as a saint by the Eastern or Western catholic tradition churches. Several of his teachings on issues such as the clear subordination of the Son and Spirit to the Father, as well as his condemnation of remarriage for widows and of fleeing from persecution, contradicted the doctrines of these traditions. Eschatology. Tertullian was a premillennialist {"Jesus will physically return to the Earth (the Second Coming) before the Millennium; based upon a literal interpretation of Revelation 20:1–6"}, affirming a literal resurrection at the second advent of Jesus at the end of the world, not at death. Like Irenaeus, Tertullian equated the Antichrist with the '"Man of Sin" and the "Beast". He expected a specific Antichrist to appear as a persecutor of the church just before the resurrection, under whom a second company of martyrs will be slain. Unlike Irenaeus, however, Tertullian does not consider the Antichrist to be a Jew sitting in a Jewish temple at Jerusalem. Rather, the Antichrist comes out of the church. The order of Last Days events, according to Tertullian, are the plagues, Babylon's doom, Antichrist's warfare on the saints, the devil cast into the bottomless pit, the Advent, the resurrection of the saints, the Judgment, and the Second Resurrection, with the harvest at the end of the World; and the sixth seal extending to the final dissolution of the earth and sky, including the stars. Tertullian maintained that the thousand years of Revelation will follow the resurrection of the righteous dead on the earth with the New Jerusalem, preceding the eternity of heaven. The earth is destroyed after the one thousand years and the saints moved to the kingdom of heaven. Moral principles. Tertullian was a determined advocate of strict discipline and an austere code of practise, and like many of the African fathers, one of the leading representatives of the rigorist element in the early Church. These views may have led him to adopt Montanism with its ascetic rigor and its belief in chiliasm and the continuance of the prophetic gifts. In his writings on public amusements, the veiling of virgins, the conduct of women, and the like, he gives expression to these views. On the principle that we should not look at or listen to what we have no right to practise, and that polluted things, seen and touched, pollute (De spectaculis, viii, xvii), he declared a Christian should abstain from the theater and the amphitheater. There pagan religious rites were applied and the names of pagan divinities invoked; there the precepts of modesty, purity, and humanity were ignored or set aside, and there no place was offered to the onlookers for the cultivation of the Christian graces. Women should put aside their gold and precious stones as ornaments, and virgins should conform to the law of St. Paul for women and keep themselves strictly veiled (De virginibus velandis). He praised the unmarried state as the highest (De monogamia, xvii; Ad uxorem, i.3) and called upon Christians not to allow themselves to be excelled in the virtue of celibacy by Vestal Virgins and Egyptian priests. He even labeled second marriage a species of adultery (De exhortationis castitatis, ix), but this directly contradicted the Epistles of the Apostle Paul. Tertullian's resolve to never marry again and that no one else should remarry eventually led to his break with Rome because the orthodox church refused to follow him in this resolve. He, instead, favored the Montanist sect where they also condemned second marriage. One reason for Tertullian's disdain for marriage was his belief about the transformation that awaited a married couple. He believed that marital relations coarsened the body and spirit and would dull their spiritual senses and avert the Holy Spirit since husband and wife became one flesh once married {E: materialism}. Tertullian is sometimes criticized for being misogynistic, on the basis of the contents of his De Cultu Feminarum, section I.I, part 2 (trans. C.W. Marx):[citation needed] "Do you not know that you are Eve? The judgment of God upon this sex lives on in this age; therefore, necessarily the guilt should live on also. You are the gateway of the devil; you are the one who unseals the curse of that tree, and you are the first one to turn your back on the divine law; you are the one who persuaded him whom the devil was not capable of corrupting; you easily destroyed the image of God, Adam. Because of what you deserve, that is, death, even the Son of God had to die." Tertullian had a radical view on the cosmos. He believed that heaven and earth intersected at many points and that it was possible that sexual relations with supernatural beings can occur. // Pacifism {Christian pacifism}. Several Church Fathers interpreted Jesus' teachings as advocating nonviolence. Tertulian: "One soul cannot be due to two masters—God and Cæsar. And yet Moses carried a rod, and Aaron wore a buckle, and John (Baptist) is girt with leather and Joshua the son of Nun leads a line of march; and the People warred: if it pleases you to sport with the subject. But how will a Christian man war, nay, how will he serve even in peace, without a sword, which the Lord has taken away? For albeit soldiers had come unto John, and had received the formula of their rule; albeit, likewise, a centurion had believed; still the Lord afterward, in disarming Peter, unbelted every soldier. No dress is lawful among us, if assigned to any unlawful action." — Tertullian, On Idolatry Chapter 19: Concerning Military Service. // The "legalism" of Tertullian of Carthage — his profuse employment of the terms, concepts and idioms of Roman law, and of dramatic scenarios from the world of litigation and penal justice — is a traditional problem in early Christian studies. Was Tertullian a iurisperitus in his earlier life, perhaps even the Tertullianus whose work is attested in the Digest? Barnes' 1971 study argued against this view: the chronology was not quite right, and, in any case, knowledge of Roman law was not the exclusive purview of "jurists." Instead, Tertullian was displaying the fruits of an elite education in forensic rhetoric, which some members of his audience would have shared, and others would have been able to appreciate. Nevertheless, the debate about Tertullian's identity has continued: what sort of legal expert was he? or did he simply have an elite person's knowledge of the law? Meanwhile, the instrumental role of legal language in Tertullian's theology, as well as the significance of this language for our understanding of the Roman imperial world, have tended to be sidelined. It is this, arguably more productive perspective on Tertullian's "legalism" that will be the focus of this paper. (...) In the world of third-century Carthage, the language of the law had great hermeneutic potential. It was a versatile and conceptually sophisticated language, with which Tertullian could assume a remarkable degree of familiarity from his audience. The law was also an imperial language, imbued with great authority and power. Accordingly, Tertullian cultivated "the jurist" as a literary persona, an expert voice that expounded the lex Christiana to God's subjects. In both respects, Tertullian's works are striking testimony of the vibrant legal culture that had developed in Africa under Roman imperial rule. Anna Dolganov - Tertullian the "Jurist" and the Language of Roman Law

* Ориген [Origen of Alexandria] (ок 185-ок 254). Ориге́н Адама́нт (лат. Origenes Adamantius) — греческий христианский теолог, философ, учёный. Основатель библейской филологии. Автор терминов «Богочеловек» Ориген выступал сторонником идеи конечного спасения всего сущего (апокатастасис). Эсхатологический оптимизм Оригена отразился в учении о циклическом времени {??}, или апокатастасисе, которое предполагает, что посмертное воздаяние и ад относительны, так как Бог по своей благости в конечном счёте спасёт от адских мук не только праведников, но и всех людей, всех демонов и даже самого Сатану. Ориген учил о предсуществовании человеческих душ — доктрина, заметно отличающаяся от традиционного понимания реинкарнации в индуизме или платонизме. Согласно доктрине о предсуществовании душ, души не воплощались в животных или растения — они продвигались по пути к совершенству, принимая всё более и более «просветлённые» тела в человеческих формах жизни. Ориген утверждал, что падшие души реинкарнируются в телах ангелов, в человеческих телах на земле или в более низших, демонических формах жизни, постепенно проходя череду перевоплощений в условной «лестнице иерархий» разумных существ. Origen of Alexandria (c 184 – c. 253). Origen of Alexandria, also known as Origen Adamantius, was an early Christian scholar, ascetic, and theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a prolific writer who wrote roughly 2,000 treatises in multiple branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, homiletics, and spirituality. He was one of the most influential figures in early Christian theology, apologetics, and asceticism. He has been described as "the greatest genius the early church ever produced". Origen sought martyrdom with his father at a young age but was prevented from turning himself in to the authorities by his mother. Demetrius condemned Origen for insubordination and accused him of having castrated himself and of having taught that even Satan would eventually attain salvation {universal salvation}, an accusation which Origen vehemently denied. He was tortured for his faith during the Decian persecution in 250 and died three to four years later from his injuries. Cosmology and eschatology. Origen based his teaching of the preexistence of souls on an allegorical interpretation of the creation story in the Book of Genesis. One of Origen's main teachings was the doctrine of the preexistence of souls, which held that before God created the material world he created a vast number of incorporeal "spiritual intelligences" (ψυχαί). All of these souls were at first devoted to the contemplation and love of their Creator, but as the fervor of the divine fire cooled, almost all of these intelligences eventually grew bored of contemplating God, and their love for him "cooled off" (ψύχεσθαι). When God created the world, the souls which had previously existed without bodies became incarnate. Those whose love for God diminished the most became demons. Those whose love diminished moderately became human souls, eventually to be incarnated in fleshly bodies. Those whose love diminished the least became angels. One soul, however, who remained perfectly devoted to God became, through love, one with the Word (Logos) of God. The Logos eventually took flesh and was born of the Virgin Mary, becoming the God-man Jesus Christ. Origen may or may not have believed in the Platonic teaching of metempsychosis ("the transmigration of souls"; i.e. reincarnation). He explicitly rejects "the false doctrine of the transmigration of souls into bodies", but this may refer only to a specific kind of transmigration. Geddes MacGregor has argued that Origen must have believed in metempsychosis because it makes sense within his eschatology and is never explicitly denied in the Bible. Roger E. Olson, however, dismisses the view that Origen believed in reincarnation as a New Age misunderstanding of Origen's teachings. It is certain that Origen rejected the Stoic notion of a cyclical universe, which is directly contrary to his eschatology. Origen believed that, eventually, the whole world would be converted to Christianity, "since the world is continually gaining possession of more souls." He believed that the Kingdom of Heaven was not yet come, but that it was the duty of every Christian to make the eschatological reality of the kingdom present in their lives. Origen was a Universalist, who suggested that all people might eventually attain salvation, but only after being purged of their sins through "divine fire". This, of course, in line of Origen's allegorical interpretation, was not literal fire, but rather the inner anguish of knowing one's own sins. Origen was also careful to maintain that universal salvation was merely a possibility and not a definitive doctrine. Jerome quotes Origen as having allegedly written that "after aeons and the one restoration of all things, the state of Gabriel will be the same as that of the Devil {like a one-time version of a cyclic universe: a return to the non-dualist perfect state}, Paul's as that of Caiaphas, that of virgins as that of prostitutes." Jerome, however, was not above deliberately altering quotations to make Origen seem more like a heretic, and Origen expressly states in his Letter to Friends in Alexandria that Satan and his demons would be not included in the final salvation. // The influence of Greek thought upon Christian theology offered church leaders an alternative to the millenarian worldview. The theology of Origen, the great 3rd-century Alexandrian Christian thinker, emphasized the manifestation of the kingdom in the soul of the believer rather than in the world, a significant shift from the historical toward the metaphysical or the spiritual. Richard Landes - Encyclopedia Britannica - Eschatology

* Pope Dionysius of Alexandria [Dionysius the Great; Дионисий Александрийский] (d 265). Dionysius the Great was the 14th Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria from 28 December 248 until his death on 22 March 264. Most information known about him comes from his large surviving correspondence. Only one original letter survives to this day; the remaining letters are excerpted in the works of Eusebius.

* Porphyry [of Tyre, philosopher; Порфирий] (c 234-c 305). Porphyry of Tyre was a Phoenician Neoplatonic philosopher born in Tyre, Roman Syria during Roman rule. He edited and published The Enneads, the only collection of the work of Plotinus, his teacher. His commentary on Euclid's Elements was used as a source by Pappus of Alexandria. He wrote original works on a wide variety of topics, ranging from music to Homer to vegetarianism. His Isagoge, or Introduction, an introduction to logic and philosophy, was the standard textbook on logic throughout the Middle Ages in its Latin and Arabic translations. Through works such as Philosophy from Oracles and Against the Christians (which was banned by Constantine the Great), he was involved in a controversy with early Christians. Against the Christians (Adversus Christianos). During his retirement in Sicily, Porphyry wrote Against the Christians (Adversus Christianos) which consisted of fifteen books. Some thirty Christian apologists, such as Methodius, Eusebius, Apollinaris, Augustine, Jerome, etc., responded to his challenge. In fact, everything known about Porphyry's arguments is found in these refutations, largely because Theodosius II ordered every copy burned in A.D. 435 and again in 448. Porphyry became one of the most able pagan adversaries of Christianity of his day. His aim was not to disprove the substance of Christianity's teachings but rather the records within which the teachings are communicated. Augustine and the 5th-century ecclesiastical historian Socrates of Constantinople, assert that Porphyry was once a Christian. // As quoted by Jerome, Porphyry mocked Paul and the early Christians while suggesting that the 'magical arts' performed by Jesus of Nazareth and his followers were nothing special, done similarly by other figures of Greco-Roman history: 'He did it all for money; [...] (They were) poor and country-dwelling men, seeing that they used to have nothing; certain wonders were worked with magical arts. Not that it is unusual however to do wonders; for the magicians in Egypt also did wonders against Moses, Apollonius also did them, Apuleius also did them, and any number have done wonders. [they did wonders by magical arts] so that they might receive riches from rich and impressionable women, whom they had led astray.' (Against the Christians)

* Марина Антиохийская [Margaret the Virgin, Margaret of Antioch, Marina the Great Martyr] (ок 292-ок 307). Мари́на Антиохи́йская (др.-греч. Μαρίνα; родилась, приблизительно, в 292 году, Антиохия, Писидия, Римская империя — казнена около 307 года, там же, Римская империя) — христианская дева, почитаемая в лике великомучениц. Margaret the Virgin. Margaret, known as Margaret of Antioch in the West, and as Saint Marina the Great Martyr in the East, is celebrated as a saint. Said to have been martyred in 304, she was declared apocryphal by Pope Gelasius I in 494 {?? >>}, but devotion to her revived in the West with the Crusades. She was reputed to have promised very powerful indulgences to those who wrote or read her life, or invoked her intercessions; these no doubt helped the spread of her cultus. Margaret is one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, and is one of the saints Joan of Arc claimed to have spoken with. // The worship of St. Margaret does not appear to emerge until the 8th century, although she was canonized in 494 by Pope Gelasius I. This being said, she was extremely popular by the 12th century, especially in the West. Her story spread rapidly because of the crusades, and from the 12th until the 20th centuries she was included in the saints’ commemoration wherever the Roman Rule was celebrated, and was one of the fourteen Holy Helpers, as well as one of the saints who spoke to Joan of Arc. St. Margaret and the Dragon

* Мефодий Олимпийский [Мефодий Патарский; Methodius of Olympus] (ок 260-312). Мефо́дий Пата́рский, или Мефо́дий Олимпи́йский — христианский богослов, автор сочинений против Оригена, нравственных поучений и толкований Священного Писания. Сочинения Мефодия включены в 18-й том Patrologia Graeca. Почитается в лике священномучеников, память в Православной церкви 20 июня (по юлианскому календарю), в Католической церкви 20 июня по григорианскому календарю. Methodius of Olympus. Saint Methodius of Olympus (died c. 311) was a Christian bishop, ecclesiastical author and martyr today regarded as a Church Father. He is commemorated on June 20. Few reports have survived on the life of this first systematic opponent of Origen; even these short accounts present many difficulties. Eusebius does not mention him in his Church History, probably because he opposed various theories of Origen, thus Saint Jerome provides the earliest accounts of him. (...) Methodius had a comprehensive philosophical education, and was an important theologian as well as a prolific and polished author. Chronologically, his works can only be assigned in a general way to the end of the third and the beginning of the 4th century. He became of special importance in the history of theological literature, in that he combated various views of the great Alexandrian, Origen. He particularly attacked his doctrine that man's body at the resurrection is not the same body as he had in life, as well as his idea of the world's eternity. Nevertheless, he recognized the great services of Origen in ecclesiastical theology. Like Origen, he is strongly influenced by Plato's philosophy, and uses to a great extent the allegorical explanation of Scripture. Of his numerous works only one has come down to us complete in a Greek text: the dialogue on virginity, under the title Symposium, or on Virginity (Symposion e peri hagneias). In the dialogue, composed with reference to Plato's Symposium, he depicts a festive meal of ten virgins in the garden of Arete, at which each of the participators extols Christian virginity and its sublime excellence. It concludes with a hymn on Jesus as the Bridegroom of the Church. Larger fragments are preserved of several other writings in Greek; we know of other works from old versions in Slavonic, though some are abbreviated. The following works are in the form of dialogue: 1) On Free Will (peri tou autexousiou), an important treatise attacking the Gnostic view of the origin of evil and in proof of the freedom of the human will; 2) On the Resurrection (Aglaophon e peri tes anastaseos), in which the doctrine that the same body that man has in life will be awakened to incorruptibility at the resurrection is specially put forward in opposition to Origen. (...) Methodius taught that Jesus Christ remained a virgin His whole life as an example for men: "What then did the Lord, the Truth and the Light, accomplish on coming down to the world? He preserved His flesh incorrupt in virginity with which he had adorned it. And so let us too, if we are to come to the likeness of God, endeavor to aspire to the virginity of Christ." (Symposium 1.5) // Священномученик Мефодий, епископ Патарский (Ликийская область в Малой Азии), отличался подлинным иноческим смирением. Тихо и кротко он поучал свою паству, но вместе с тем твердо отстаивал чистоту Православия и энергично боролся с ересями, особенно с получившей широкое распространение ересью оригенистов. После него осталось богатое литературное наследие: сочинения в защиту христианства против язычества, изложение православных догматов против ереси Оригена, нравственные поучения, толкования Священного Писания. Святитель Мефодий был схвачен язычниками, с твердостью исповедал перед ними веру во Христа Спасителя, и в 312 году был приговорен к смерти через усекновение главы. Священномученик Мефодий, епископ Патарский

* Евсевий Кесарийский [Eusebius of Caesarea] (260-265--339/340). Евсе́вий Кесари́йский — римский историк, богослов, «отец церковной истории», друг императора Константина, с 314 г. епископ Кесарии Палестинской. Написал самый древний сохранившийся труд по истории церкви. До создания его «Церковной истории» сочинение на подобную тему составил Гегесипп, но от него сохранилось только название. Eusebius [of Caesarea] (260/265-339/340). Eusebius of Caesarea (Eusébios tés Kaisareías), also known as Eusebius Pamphili, was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist. As "Father of Church History" (not to be confused with the title of Church Father), he produced the Ecclesiastical History, On the Life of Pamphilus, the Chronicle and On the Martyrs. He also produced a biographical work on Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, who was augustus between AD 306 and AD 337. Although Eusebius' works are regarded as giving insight into the history of the early church, he was not without prejudice, especially in regard to the Jews, for while "Eusebius indeed blames the Jews for the crucifixion of Jesus, he nevertheless also states that forgiveness can be granted even for this sin and that the Jews can receive salvation." Nor can his works be trusted to be free from subjectivism, for some scholars believe that "Eusebius is a notoriously unreliable historian, and so anything he reports should be critically scrutinized." This is especially true of his Life of Constantine, which he wrote as a eulogy shortly after the emperor's death in AD 337, and which is "often maligned for perceived factual errors, deemed by some so hopelessly flawed that it cannot be the work of Eusebius at all." Yet others see him as a "Constantinian flunky" for, as a trusted adviser to Constantine, it was politically expedient for him to present Constantine in the best light possible. He is recognized as a saint in the Egyptian Coptic Church and the Ethiopian Church. Doctrine. Eusebius is fairly unusual in his preterist, or fulfilled, eschatological view. Saying "the Holy Scriptures foretell that there will be unmistakable signs of the Coming of Christ. Now there were among the Hebrews three outstanding offices of dignity, which made the nation famous, firstly the kingship, secondly that of prophet, and lastly the high priesthood. The prophecies said that the abolition and complete destruction of all these three together would be the sign of the presence of the Christ. And that the proofs that the times had come, would lie in the ceasing of the Mosaic worship, the desolation of Jerusalem and its Temple, and the subjection of the whole Jewish race to its enemies. ...The holy oracles foretold that all these changes, which had not been made in the days of the prophets of old, would take place at the coming of the Christ, which I will presently shew to have been fulfilled as never before in accordance with the predictions" (Demonstratio Evangelica VIII). // Eusebius: just as there was one God so there could only be one Emperor (Universal monarchy)

* Пахомий Великий [Pachomius the Great] (ок 292-ок 346/348). Пахо́мий Великий — египетский монах, выходец из Фив. Основатель киновитного монашества. После смерти Паламона, Пахомию явился Ангел Божий в образе схимника и вручил ему устав монашеской жизни. Пахомий вошел в историю церкви как создатель общежительной формы монашества, или киновитства, которую он считал более соответствующей человеческой природе, нежели отшельничество в духе Антония Великого. Однако до создания первого монастыря он находился несколько лет в уединении в пустыне. Пахомий вошёл в историю, как один из отцов схимничества. Кроме того, Пахомий настаивал на беспрекословном подчинении иноков настоятелю, который в монашеской иерархии заступал место монарха. Пахомий не был создателем монастыря в современном понятии слова. Киновия отличается от монастыря тем, что монахи там хотя и проводят часть дня вместе, живут каждый по отдельности, каждый в небольшой хижине и часть дня проводят наедине с собой, всё это является лишь приготовлением для тех, кто сможет потом перейти на более высокий аскетический уровень. Pachomius the Great. Pachomius, also known as Saint Pachomius the Great, is generally recognized as the founder of Christian cenobitic monasticism. In the Lutheran Church, he is remembered as a renewer of the church, along with his contemporary (and fellow desert saint), Anthony of Egypt. || Pachomius, also known as Pachome, Pakhomios, and Pahom, is generally recognized as the founder of Christian cenobitic monasticism. Pachomius continued as abbot to the cenobites for some forty years. During an epidemic (probably plague), Pachomius called the monks, strengthened their faith, and appointed his successor. Pachomius then died on 14 Pashons, 64 A.M. (9 May 348 A.D.). By the time Pachomius died, eight monasteries and several hundred monks followed his guidance. Within a generation, cenobic practices spread from Egypt to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually Western Europe. The number of monks, rather than the number of monasteries, may have reached 7000. His reputation as a holy man has endured. As mentioned above, several liturgical calendars commemorate Pachomius. Among many miracles attributed to Pachomius, that though he had never learned the Greek or Latin tongues, he sometimes miraculously spoke them. Pachomius is also credited with being the first Christian to use and recommend use of a prayer rope. Coptic literature. Examples of purely Coptic literature are the works of Anthony the Great and Pachomius, who spoke only Coptic, and the sermons and preachings of Shenoute the Great, who chose to write only in Coptic. The Pachomian system tended to treat religious literature as mere written instructions.

* Архипп Херотопский (IV). Архи́пп — христианский подвижник, преподобный.

* Фиваида [Thebaid, Thebais]. Фиваи́да (греч. Thēbaida, Thēbais) — старинное название области в Верхнем Египте; термин происходит от греческого названия его столицы Фив. Название фигурирует в сказаниях о первых христианских отшельниках. Thebaid. The Thebaid or Thebais (Greek: Thēbaïs) was a region in ancient Egypt, comprising the 13 southernmost nomes of Upper Egypt, from Abydos to Aswan. Around the 5th century, since it was a desert, the Thebaid became a place of retreat of a number of Christian hermits, and was the birthplace of Pachomius. In Christian art, the Thebaid was represented as a place with numerous monks.

* Отцы-пустынники [Desert Fathers] (IV-V). Отцы-пустынники — название христианских монахов, отшельников и аскетов периода возникновения монашества в IV—V веках. Используется преимущественно в отношении египетских подвижников, проживавших в Скитской пустыне (Вади-эль-Натрун). Изречения отцов-пустынников вошли в многочисленные сборники («Патерик Скитский», «Изречения отцов», «Книга святых мужей»), известные с VI века. Отцы-пустынники придерживались анахоретного монашества, то есть проживали в уединённых и пустынных местностях, по возможности чуждаясь всякого общения с другими. Такое движение возникло уже во II веке и, первоначально, было вызвано преследованием первых христиан. Затем появилось уже богословское обоснование, что такой аскетизм есть подражание жизни Иоанна Крестителя в пустыне и сорокадневному посту Иисуса Христа во время Его искушения в пустыне, на первый план в отшельничестве вышло стремление к духовным подвигам. Возникновение данной формы монашеской жизни приписывают преподобному Павлу Фивейскому (умер ок. 341 года), прожившему, по преданию, 91 год в отшельничестве. Подобный пример вдохновил многих христиан, и когда Афанасий Великий в 356 году удалился в Ливийскую пустыню, он нашёл её уже заселённой многочисленными пустынниками. [K4]

* Афанасий Великий [Athanasius of Alexandria] (ок 295-373; «Athanasius contra mundum»). Афана́сий Вели́кий — святой Православной и Католической церкви, один из греческих Отцов Церкви, принадлежавший к Александрийской школе патристики. Архиепископ Александрийский, преемник епископа Александра. Известен как один из наиболее энергичных противников арианства. К 350 году он остался единственным епископом неарианского толка в восточной половине Римской империи. Непреклонно противостоявший влиятельному арианскому духовенству и четырём императорам, несколько раз изгоняемый с кафедры, Афанасий Александрийский был известен как «Athanasius contra mundum» ("Афанасий против всего мира"). (...) Тексты Афанасия в основном сосредоточены на христологии и защите единосущия Отца и Сына в полемике с арианами. Существует, однако, по меньшей мере два текста, в которых Афанасий обращается к вопросу об исхождении Святого Духа: "Contra Arianos" ("Против ариан"), написанный во время ссылки Афанасия в Рим (ок. 339 — 346), и "Epistula ad Serapionem", сочинённая десятью годами позднее (ок. 357 — 358 гг.). "Epistulа ad Serapionem" / "Послание Серапиону" (Серапион египетский епископ) написано как полемическое послание в ходе борьбы со сторонниками ереси духоборчества (др.-греч. πνευματομαχία), которых Афанасий называет «тропиками» (др.-греч. τροπικοί, от др.-греч. τρόπος — "фигура речи"), чьё толкование слов Священного Писания привело их к выводу, что Святой Дух не Божественное, а "сотворённое" существо. Св. Афанасий, говоря об отношениях внутри Троицы, утверждает, что Дух имеет такое же отношение природы и порядка по отношению к Сыну, какое Сын имеет по отношению к Богу Отцу, тем самым защищая божественность Духа. «Как Сын говорит „Всё, что имеет Отец, есть Моё“ (Ин 16, 15), так найдём, что всё это через Сына есть и в Духе.» В "Contra Arianos" / "Против ариан" св. Афанасий затрачивает усилия на преодоление некоторых субординационистских тенденций в тринитарном богословии, которые есть у Оригена, в то же время указывая на некоторый порядок отношений Божественных Лиц в Св. Троице: «не Дух сочетает Сына с Отцом, но паче Дух приемлет от Слова.» Подобные высказывания Афанасия позднее будут истолковываться в среде католических богословов как аргумент в пользу идеи об исхождении Духа не только от Отца, но и от Сына (филиокве). Афанасию ошибочно приписывается составление так называемого Афанасьевского Символа веры. Athanasius of Alexandria. Athanasius I of Alexandria, also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor or, primarily in the Coptic Orthodox Church, Athanasius the Apostolic, was the 20th bishop of Alexandria (as Athanasius I). His intermittent episcopacy spanned 45 years (c. 8 June 328 – 2 May 373), of which over 17 encompassed five exiles, when he was replaced on the order of four different Roman emperors. Athanasius was a Christian theologian, a Church Father, the chief defender of Trinitarianism against Arianism, and a noted Coptic Christian (Egyptian) leader of the fourth century. Conflict with Arius and Arianism as well as successive Roman emperors shaped Athanasius' career. In 325, at the age of 27, Athanasius began his leading role against the Arians as a deacon and assistant to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria during the First Council of Nicaea. Roman emperor Constantine the Great had convened the council in May–August 325 to address the Arian position that the Son of God, Jesus of Nazareth, is of a distinct substance from the Father. Three years after that council, Athanasius succeeded his mentor as archbishop of Alexandria. In addition to the conflict with the Arians (including powerful and influential Arian churchmen led by Eusebius of Nicomedia), he struggled against the Emperors Constantine, Constantius II, Julian the Apostate and Valens. He was known as Athanasius Contra Mundum (Latin for Athanasius Against the World). Nonetheless, within a few years of his death, Gregory of Nazianzus called him the "Pillar of the Church". His writings were well regarded by subsequent Church fathers in the West and the East, who noted their devotion to the Word-become-man {Logos theology, co-eternal}, pastoral concern and interest in monasticism. Athanasius is considered one of the four great Eastern Doctors of the Church in the Catholic Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church Athanasius is the first person to identify the same 27 books of the New Testament that are in use today. He is venerated as a Christian saint, whose feast day is 2 May in Western Christianity, 15 May in the Coptic Orthodox Church, and 18 January in the other Eastern Orthodox Churches. He is venerated by the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Catholic Church, the Lutheran churches, and the Anglican Communion.. // Афанасьевский Символ веры {forgery}. Афана́сьевский Си́мвол ве́ры (лат. Symbolum Quicumque) — древний христианский символ веры. Традиционно в католичестве приписывался святому Афанасию Александрийскому, жившему в IV веке и писавшему на греческом языке, чем и объясняется его название. Впервые авторство свт. Афанасия Великого было поставлено под сомнение в 1642 году в труде голландского кальвиниста Г. Восса. Это мнение было поддержано многими учёными. Аргументы против авторства Афанасия были следующими: отсутствует греческий текст символа; никто из греческих отцов этот символ веры не цитирует и даже не упоминает, (первое упоминание у греков «Quicumque vult» относится к XII веку); сам Афанасий был строгим поборником только одного символа — Никейского; символ содержит филиокве, которое, хоть и встречается в творениях Афанасия, еще не вошло в ряд особо обсуждаемых догматов веры. Символ веры имеет западное происхождение.

* Ефрем Сирин [Ephrem the Syrian] (ок 306-373) {Ефре'м Си'рин} — христианский богослов и поэт, один из Учителей Церкви IV века. Канонизирован в лике преподобных. Лучшую часть сочинений св. Ефрема Сирина составляют его проповеди и пророчества, особенно нравоучительные. Он не столько доказывает, сколько высказывает свои мысли и чувства. «Сирийский пророк» (название, данное ему современниками) является здесь в своей прирождённой сфере. Он — истинный и настоящий оратор в христианском смысле слова. Его речи чужды искусственной конструкции и условной риторики; проповедь его часто обращается в настоящую гимнологию: бесконечное разнообразие сравнений доходит иногда до излишнего словообилия и чрезмерного аллегоризирования. Господствующий аргумент в его проповедях — умелая цитата из Св. Писания, главное содержание их — учение о жизни «для Бога и в Боге». Несоответствие действительной жизни христианского общества с христианским идеалом наполняет его душу неутешной скорбью. Он говорит о покаянии, об удалении от суеты мирской, о борьбе со страстями; изображает смерть, Страшный суд, загробную судьбу грешников и праведников {Little Eschatology}. Чуждый крайнего ригоризма, он благословляет брак и семью, советует родителям заботиться о воспитании детей для жизни, о хорошем замужестве для дочерей, об определении сыновей на службу общественную и государственную. Его проповедь покаяния не есть проповедь мрачного и безотрадного состояния духа. Он обращает мысль слушателя к христианскому учению о благости Божией; уныние выставляется им как тяжкий грех. Одни поучения его кратки и имеют форму гномических {< gnome ~ aphorism, maxim} наставлений древнегреческих философов; другие изложены в форме дооригеновской гомилии, то есть настоящей беседы — диалога учителя с учениками; третьи представляют тип оригеновской гомилии, то есть последовательного толкования большего или меньшего отрывка Св. Писания, перемежающегося нравоучениями; четвёртые — настоящие обширные тематизованные слова (греч. λόγοι), характеризуемые всесторонним объяснением предмета и истинно ораторским изложением. К этой группе, самой многочисленной, принадлежат наиболее известные проповеди Ефрема Сирина: семь слов о втором пришествии Христовом {Big Eschatology}, о воскресении мёртвых, о страданиях Спасителя, о кресте, о терпении, о вере, о посте, о добродетелях и пороках, о гордости. [Молитва Ефрема Сирина] Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306 – 373), also known as Saint Ephraem, Ephrem of Edessa, Ephrem Syrus, Ephrem, or Ephraim, was a Syriac Christian deacon and a prolific Syriac-language hymnographer and theologian of the fourth century. Ephrem is especially beloved in the Syriac Orthodox Church, and counted as a Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted Monk) in the Eastern Orthodox Church. His feast day is celebrated on 28 January and on the Saturday of the Venerable Fathers. He was declared a Doctor of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church in 1920. Ephrem wrote a wide variety of hymns, poems, and sermons in verse, as well as prose exegesis. These were works of practical theology for the edification of the Church in troubled times. So popular were his works, that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds of pseudepigraphal works in his name. He has been called the most significant of all of the fathers of the Syriac-speaking church tradition.

* Кирилл Иерусалимский [Cyril of Jerusalem] (315-386; аскет). Кири́лл Иерусали́мский — один из Отцов Церкви, епископ Иерусалимский (350—386), аскет, проповедник, который пытался поднять значение Иерусалима в качестве центра всей христианской церкви. Был пресвитером Иерусалимской епархии, в 350 году рукоположен в иерусалимские епископы. Иерусалим в то время находился в подчинении у митрополита Кесарийского, что вовсе не устраивало св. Кирилла. Трижды его смещали {displace} по инициативе кесарийского епископа Акакия, который требовал от Кирилла принять арианство. По случаю небесного знамения — видения Креста Господня в небе над Иерусалимом в праздник Пятидесятницы в 351 году Кирилл отправил «Послание к благочестивому царю Констанцию». Кирилл потратил много сил на умиротворение {appeasement, pacification} иерусалимской паствы и борьбу с еретиками, против которых подписал осуждение на II Вселенском соборе. После Кирилла Иерусалимского осталось восемнадцать «Огласительных слов», истолковывающих смысл Символа веры: толкование для «во едино крещение покаяния во оставление грехов», для догматов общего православного исповедания, для «верую во единаго Бога», «Отца», «Вседержителя», «Творца небу и земли» и т. д., для всего Символа веры до конца. Кроме того, у него есть пять тайноводственных {служащий познанию тайн, объясняющий тайны или таинства} слов, где он истолковывает обряды совершения и смысл таинств крещения, миропомазания, елеосвящения, евхаристии и проч. Из других его творений известны «Беседа о расслабленном при купели» и «Беседы о претворении Господом воды в вино». Творения и слова Кирилла имеют важное значение в догматическом и экзегетическом отношении, однако многие оспаривают подлинность его авторства. // Итак, придет с небес Господь наш Иисус Христос, придет со славою при скончании мира сего в последний день. Ибо будет скончание мира сего, и сотворенный мир сей паки обновится. Поскольку разврат, татьба и любодеяния, и всякий род грехов, разлияся по земли, и кровь с кровьми (Ос. {Осия - Hosea} 4:2) смесилась в мире; то чтобы сие чудное обиталище тварей не осталось навсегда исполненным беззакония, прейдет мир сей, чтобы снова явиться лучшим. Огласительное поучение 15-е — Св. Кирилл Иерусалимский // Hosea 4:2 There is only cursing, lying and murder, stealing and adultery; they break all bounds, and bloodshed follows bloodshed.

* Ticonius [Tyconius, Tychonius; Тихоний Африканский] (fl  370-390). Ticonius, also spelled Tyconius or Tychonius was an African Donatist writer whose conception of the City of God influenced St. Augustine of Hippo (who wrote a book on the same topic). He defended a milder form of Donatism than Parmenianus. He admitted a church outside his own sect and rejected the rebaptism of Catholics. Ticonius's best known work, the Seven Rules of Interpretation (for the Bible), is quoted and explained by St. Augustine in De doctrina christiana and his authority gave them great importance for many centuries in the West. Ticonius wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse of John, which explains the Apocalypse in light of his seven rules. His interpretation of the Apocalypse is amillennial. Tyconius defended the Nicene doctrine of the homoousios, by stating: "[In the image of the Son] sitting with [the Father], he shows that the Son participates in the power of the Father. For what else does it mean that he is seated on the throne of the Father than that he is of one and the same substance? For God the Son is powerful, who in the Father is everywhere and by his own power fills the heaven and the earth."— Commentary on the Apocalypse 3.21

* Аполлинарий Лаодикийский [Аполинарианство; Apollinaris of Laodicea, Apollinarianism] (ок 310-ок 390). Аполлина́рий Лаодики́йский (Аполлинарий Младший) — епископ Лаодикии Сирийской (совр. Латакия, Сирия), один из самых ярых противников арианства {утверждавшее изначальную сотворённость (тварность) Бога-Сына, позднее — неединосущность его с Богом-Отцом (антитринитаризм); Jesus Christ is the Son of God, who was begotten by God the Father, and is distinct from the Father (therefore subordinate to him). However, in contrast with traditional Trinitarianism, Arianism holds that the Son of God is not co-eternal with God the Father.}, богослов, экзегет, предшественник монофизитства. Сочинения Аполлинария включены в 33-й том Patrologia Graeca. Аполлинарий был представителем александрийской богословской школы и учеником Афанасия Великого, состоял в переписке с Василием Великим. Аполлинарий принадлежал к числу ревностных сторонников решений Никейского собора. Церковный историк А. В. Карташёв пишет о нём: Он был столь строгий, непримиримый «староникеец» на Востоке, что не признавал иерархической власти даже "Мелетия Антиохийского, не говоря уже ο маленьком Павлине. Под предлогом этих арианских смут он просто объявил себя здесь главой автономной церкви. Как талантливый писатель и профессор, он имел достаточно выдающихся сторонников и приверженцев, и св. Василий Великий в молодости почтительно дружил с ним, и сам великий Афанасий ценил Аполлинария за ревность по никейской вере."— Карташёв А.В. «Вселенские соборы» Патрологи пишут, что Аполлинарий «по чистоте жизни… представлял одно из светлых явлений на Востоке, поэтому и православные долго оставались в дружеских отношениях с ним, хотя чистота догматических воззрений его была уже омрачена». Учение. Аполлинарий писал свои сочинения, подражая греческим классикам. Исторические сюжеты Ветхого Завета послужили основой для его героических песен и трагедий (сохранились лишь его стихотворное переложение Псалтыри, Созомен сообщает, что им в стихотворной форме, по образцу поэм Гомера, была изложена Священная история от сотворения мира до времён Саула). Новый Завет он передал в форме платоновых «Диалогов». Аполлинарий известен своим оригинальным учением о личности Христа, которое церковь объявила еретическим. Исходя из того положения, что совершенный человек и совершенное Божество не могут соединиться в одно лицо и что, далее, Христос как совершенный человек был бы греховен и, следовательно, неспособен к искуплению, Аполлинарий учил, что Христос имел только две части человеческого существа — тело и душу, третью же часть, ум, занимал в нём Божественный Логос. Аполлинарий писал: «Если бы Господь принял все, то, без сомнения, имел и человеческие помыслы; в человеческих же помыслах невозможно не быть греху». Этим он посягнул на традиционное учение о богочеловечности Христа. Также Аполлинарий учил: "Плоть Спасителя, взятая с Неба из лона Отца, не имела человеческой души и разума; отсутствие души восполняло Слово Божие; Божество оставалось мертвым в продолжении трех дней" Феодорит Кирский пишет о нём: "Аполлинарий Лаодикийский явился главою еще новой секты. Прикрываясь сперва личиною благочестия и показывая вид, будто защищает апостольские догматы, он вскоре потом оказался явным врагом их, потому что о Божием естестве говорил нечисто, придумав какие-то степени достоинств, и дерзнул утверждать, что тайна домостроительства несовершенна, и что разумная душа, которой вверено управление тела, лишена бывшего спасения." Аполлинаризм (аполлинарианство) {аполлинариева ересь}. Из своих приверженцев Аполлинарий образовал в Антиохии особую общину и назначил епископом Виталия. Аполлинаристы быстро распространились в Сирии и прилежащих странах. В Константинополе и других местах они образовали много общин с своими особыми епископами. После смерти Аполлинария они распались на две партии, из которых одна, виталианцы, осталась верною учению Аполлинария, а другая, полемианцы, утверждала, что божественное и человеческое слилось в Христе в одну сущность и что поэтому нужно поклоняться телу его (их называли также поэтому саркола́тры (от др.-греч. σάρξ, σαρκός — «мясо, плоть, тело» + др.-греч. λατρεία — «служение, почитание, культ») или антропола́тры (от др.-греч. ἄνθρωπος — «человек» + др.-греч. λατρεία — «служение, почитание, культ»), а также синузи́асты (др.-греч. σύν-εσις — «соединение, встреча, слияние»), потому что они соединяли в одно — божественную и человеческую сторону. Другое название аполлинаристов — димири́ты (др.-греч. «дважды» + «часть, доля»; др.-рус. дъвочастьници). С 362 года аполлинаризм был отвергнут на многих соборах, в том числе и на Втором Вселенском соборе (381 год). Согласно 7 правилу этого собора аполлинаристов постановили принимать вторым чином, через миропомазание. Эдиктом императора Феодосия I в 383 году аполлинаристы были приравнены к евномианам и македонианам, им было запрещено иметь иерархию и церковные собрания. В 388 и 397 годах указы византийских императоров ещё более стеснили богослужение аполлинаристов, которое, в общем, немногим отличалось от обыкновенного, а в 428 году усилиями Нестория оно было совершенно запрещено в городах, после чего аполлинаристы рассеялись отчасти между православными, отчасти между монофизитами. Анафема против аполлинаристов была повторена на V Вселенском соборе, и кроме них впервые был анафематствован и сам Аполлинарий, поскольку он не покинул церковь, в отличие от своих учеников, и, как считали до V Вселенского собора, умер в мире и согласии с православной церковью, в особенности, за формулу «одна природа Бога Слова воплощенная» (др.-греч. μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη), чтобы обосновать отказ от этой формулы в условиях прославления Кирилла Алесандрийского, использовавшего эту формулу Аполлинария. В эпоху Реформации католики и протестанты поочередно навлекали на себя обвинения в аполлинаризме: католики вследствие их учения о причастии, протестанты же вследствие учения о соединении той и другой природы в Христе. // Apollinaris of Laodicea. Apollinaris the Younger, also known as Apollinaris of Laodicea and Apollinarius was a bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He is best known as a noted opponent of Arianism.

* Макарий Великий [Macarius of Egypt] (ок 300-391). Мака́рий Вели́кий (Макарий Еги́петский) — христианский святой, отшельник, почитаемый в лике преподобного, автор духовных бесед, а также ряда молитв, входящих в обязательное утреннее и вечернее правило православного христианина. Macarius of Egypt. Macarius of Egypt (300–391) was a Coptic Christian monk and hermit. He is also known as Macarius the Elder or Macarius the Great. (...) As a hermit, Macarius spent seven years living on only pulse {legume} and raw herbs. He spent the following three years consuming four or five ounces of bread a day and only one vessel of oil a year. While at the desert, he visited Anthony the Great and learned from him the laws and rules of monasticism. When he returned to the Scetic Desert at the age of forty, he became a priest. The fame of his sanctity drew many followers. The community, which took up its residence in the desert, was of the semi-eremitical type. The monks were not bound by any fixed rule; their cells were close together, and they met for Divine worship only on Saturdays or Sundays. He presided over this monastic community for the rest of his life. For a brief period of time, Macarius was banished to an island in the Nile by the Emperor Valens, along with Saint Macarius of Alexandria, during a dispute over the doctrine of the Nicene Creed. Both men were victims of religious persecution by the followers of then Bishop Lucius of Alexandria. During their time on the island, the daughter of a pagan priest had become ill. The people of the island believed that she was possessed by an evil spirit. Both saints prayed over the daughter, which in turn had saved her. The pagan people of the island were so impressed and grateful that they stopped their worship of the pagan gods and built a church. When word of this got back to the Emperor Valens and Bishop Lucius of Alexandria, they quickly allowed both men to return home. At their return on 13 Paremhat, they were met by a multitude of monks of the Nitrian Desert, numbered fifty thousand, among whom were Saint Pishoy and Saint John the Dwarf.

* Parmenian [Пармениан Карфагенский] (d c 392). (Latin: Parmenianus) was a North African Donatist bishop, the successor of Donatus in the Donatist bishopric of Carthage. He wrote several works defending the rigorist views of the Donatists and is recognized as "the most famous Donatist writer of his day", but none of his writings have survived. Parmenian's most influential work was written in about 362 and entitled Adversus ecclesiam traditorum ("Against the church of the traditores"). Parmenian held the standard rigorist position of the Donatists that "the sacrifice of a sinner is polluted," and that baptism cannot be validly conferred by a sinner, such as one of the traditores. In about 372, Ticonius, a lay exegete, wrote a book to condemn the more extreme views of Parmenian, but without abandoning his allegiance to the Donatist party. Parmenian replied, condemning the doctrine of Ticonius as tending to connect the true church (that of the Donatists), with the corrupt one, the Catholic church, especially its African branch. Even if Parmenian proved more extreme than Ticonius, he can be considered a relatively moderate Donatist for the reason that he did not require the rebaptism of all converts, but only those who had received their first baptism as Catholics. A distinctive hallmark of Parmenian's theology is his idea that the true church (i.e., the Donatist church) possesses seven dotes (divine gifts), which provide proof of its purity and holiness. These were presented in the form of allegorical symbols, derived from the Song of Songs: the cathedra ("chair," representing authority); the angelus ("angel," representing validly consecrated bishop); the spiritus (the Holy Spirit); the fountain (that is, of true baptism); the seal of the fountain (which precludes communion with any other church); and the umbilicus (the "navel," that is the focal point, a properly consecrated altar for sacrifice). These "gifts" or signs of the true church were both a guarantee of its validity and protection against the individual sinfulness of some of its members.

* Амфилохий Иконийский [Amphilochius of Iconium] (ок 340-394+). Амфило́хий Икони́йский — святой; епископ Иконийский, современник и друг Василия Великого и Григория Богослова, двоюродный брат последнего. Один из Отцов церкви (иногда относят к числу Великих каппадокийцев). Известен своей богословской апологией Божества Святого Духа — против ереси Македония {Pneumatomachi, Macedonians, Semi-Arians}. Ему посвящено сочинение Василия Великого «О Святом Духе». Сам был автором аналогичного сочинение, которое не сохранилось. На соборе в Иконии в 376 году защищал учение о божественной природе Святого Духа. В 381 году присутствовал на Втором Вселенском соборе {Первый Константинопольский собор}. Добился осуждения ереси мессалиан (евхитов) на поместном собре 390 года в городе Сида (Памфилия), на котором председательствовал. Amphilochius of Iconium. Amphilochius of Iconium (Greek: Ἀµφιλόχιος Ἰκονίου) was a Christian bishop of the fourth century, son of a Cappadocian family of distinction, born, perhaps at Caesarea, ca. 339/340, died probably 394–403. (...) He was soon drawn within the circle of influence around Basil of Caesarea, and seems to have been for a while a member of the Christian "City of the Poor" that Basil had built at Cæsarea. (...) In the history of theology he occupies a place of prominence for his defence of the divinity of the Holy Spirit against the Macedonians {Pneumatomachi}. It was to him that Basil dedicated his work "On the Holy Spirit". He wrote a similar work, now lost. We know, however, that he read it to Jerome on the occasion of their meeting at Constantinople. His attitude towards Arianism is illustrated by the well-known anecdote concerning his audience with Theodosius I and his son Arcadius. When the Emperor rebuked him for ignoring the presence of his son, he reminded him that the Lord of the universe abhorreth those who are ungrateful towards His Son, their Saviour and Benefactor. He was very energetic against the Messalians, and contributed to the extirpation of that group. Basil, who appointed him to his bishopric, had a high opinion of Amphilochius. In the next generation Theodoret described him in very flattering terms, and he is quoted by councils as late as 787. Jerome also includes him as one of the Cappadocians in a list of Christian exemplars of secular erudition. Because Amphilochius only started to study theology after he became a bishop, his work retains a certain simplicity. According to Georges Florovsky, it becomes evident in his theological writing that he has no philosophical background or particular interest in it. His writing was contingent upon his needs as a pastor and teacher in the struggle against heresy. That said, Florovsky also praises his writing as "inspired by a calm and sincere faith" and his homiletic use of rhetoric, describing it as "reminiscent of Gregory the Theologian." (...) Amphilochius' theology typically follows in the footsteps of his Cappadocian peers, and he defines the Trinity by the hypostatic properties of the Son as generation and the Spirit as procession. He does, however, innovate in designating the hypostases with a new phrase, "mode of being" (τρόποι τῆς ὺπάρξεως). This expression had not been used by the Cappadocian Fathers and was a step toward understanding the Trinity with language not aimed at essence, but relations. By the beginning of the fifth century, this phrase was generally accepted in theological uses. Besides his Trinitarian thought, Amphilochius also anticipated later theological usage with his Christological terminology of "hypostasis." In his insistence on the human nature of Christ, he was led to conclude that Christ had two wills and two natures.

* Ambrose [of Milan; Амвросий Медиоланский, Аврелий Амвросий] (c 340-397). Ambrose (born Aurelius Ambrosius), venerated as Saint Ambrose, was the Bishop of Milan, a theologian, and one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. In the confrontation with Arians, Ambrose sought to theologically refute their propositions, which were contrary to the Nicene creed and thus to the officially defined orthodoxy. Attitude towards Jews. In his treatise on Abraham, Ambrose warns against intermarriage with pagans, Jews, or heretics. In 388, Emperor Theodosius the Great was informed that a crowd of Christians, led by their bishop, had destroyed the synagogue at Callinicum on the Euphrates. He ordered the synagogue rebuilt at the expense of the bishop, but Ambrose persuaded Theodosius to retreat from this position. Attitude towards pagans. Under his influence, emperors Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius I carried on a persecution of paganism; Theodosius issued the 391 "Theodosian decrees," which with increasing intensity outlawed pagan practices. Theology. Ambrose's intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing doctrine of the Church and its sacerdotal ministry, while the prevalent asceticism of the day, continuing the Stoic and Ciceronian training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty standard of Christian ethics. Ambrose displayed a kind of liturgical flexibility that kept in mind that liturgy was a tool to serve people in worshiping God, and ought not to become a rigid entity that is invariable from place to place. Giving to the poor. He was also interested in the condition of contemporary Italian society. Ambrose considered the poor not a distinct group of outsiders, but a part of the united, solidary people. Giving to the poor was not to be considered an act of generosity towards the fringes of society but a repayment of resources that God had originally bestowed on everyone equally and that the rich had usurped. [Eschatology] One interpretation of Ambrose's writings is that he was a Christian universalist. It has been noted that Ambrose's theology was significantly influenced by that of Origen and Didymus the Blind, two other early Christian universalists. One quotation cited in favor of this belief is: "Our Savior has appointed two kinds of resurrection in the Apocalypse. 'Blessed is he that hath part in the first resurrection,' for such come to grace without the judgment. As for those who do not come to the first, but are reserved unto the second resurrection, these shall be disciplined until their appointed times, between the first and the second resurrection." One could interpret this passage as being another example of the mainstream Christian belief in a general resurrection (that both those in heaven and in hell undergo a bodily resurrection), or an allusion to purgatory (that some destined for heaven must first undergo a phase of purification). Several other works by Ambrose clearly teach the mainstream view of salvation. For example: "The Jews feared to believe in manhood taken up into God, and therefore have lost the grace of redemption, because they reject that on which salvation depends." // Eschatology. Ambrose thinks that not all the just will be given the beatific vision before the resurrection; this privilege is granted only to a few great saints of the two Testaments, patriarchs, prophets, apostles and martyrs. Ambrose distinguishes four or five degrees in the resurrection until souls are perfectly purified by passing through fire. The elect enter eternal happiness only by degrees. He exaggerated the efficacy of faith {anti-Protestant statement ??} when he said that all Christians, including infidels and apostates, will finally be saved by their faith. Apart from this, his teaching contains the gist of the present teaching of the Church on purgatory. It was the genius of St Augustine who clarified these principles based on Scripture and tradition. JOHN AZZOPARDI, S.J. - ST AMBROSE - DOCTRlNE AND IMPORTANCE (PDF)

* Епифаний Кипрский [Epiphanius of Salamis] (ум 403). Епифа́ний Ки́прский (Епифа́ний Сала́мский, лат. Epiphanius Salaminis, Епифаний Константийский) — один из ранних Отцов Церкви, который прославился значительными обличениями ересей, одним из главных источников которых он считал учение Оригена. Воззрения его слагались под влиянием аскетов Египта и Палестины, во время борьбы Церкви с арианством, в которой и сам Епифаний принимал деятельное участие. Epiphanius of Salamis. Epiphanius of Salamis (Greek: Ἐπιφάνιος; c. 310–320 – 403) was the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy. He is best known for composing the Panarion, a very large compendium of the heresies up to his own time, full of quotations that are often the only surviving fragments of suppressed texts. According to Ernst Kitzinger, he "seems to have been the first cleric to have taken up the matter of Christian religious images as a major issue", and there has been much controversy over how many of the quotations attributed to him by the Byzantine Iconoclasts were actually by him. Regardless of this he was clearly strongly against some contemporary uses of images in the church.

* Иоанн Златоуст [John Chrysostom] (ок 347-407; богослов). Иоа́нн Златоу́ст (Златоу́стый) (Иоанн Хризостом) — архиепископ Константинопольский, богослов, почитается как один из трёх Вселенских святителей и учителей вместе со святителями Василием Великим и Григорием Богословом. Иоанн оказался втянутым в конфликт с императорским двором, когда укрыл в церкви свергнутого за корыстолюбие и несправедливые поступки консула Евтропия. И, в частности, с женой императора: когда императрица Евдоксия, жена императора Аркадия (395—408), распорядилась {order, see about} о конфискации собственности у вдовы и детей опального вельможи, Иоанн стал на их защиту. Императрица не уступила и затаила {harbor} гнев на архипастыря. Её неприязнь к нему усилилась, когда ей донесли, будто он в своём поучении о суетных {vain} женщинах имел в виду её. Суд, составленный из иерархов, обличаемых ранее Златоустом, постановил низложить Иоанна и за оскорбление императрицы предать казни. Император Аркадий заменил казнь изгнанием. Той же ночью, согласно Житию, приписываемому епископу Мартирию, у императрицы, скорее всего, случился выкидыш (или на свет появился мертворождённый), а в Константинополе, согласно сообщению Феодорита Кирского, произошло землетрясение. Испуганная Евдоксия попросила императора срочно вернуть Иоанна и немедля послала письмо изгнанному пастырю, умоляя его вернуться. Но уже через два месяца новый донос пробудил гнев Евдоксии. (...) Приютивший монахов-последователей Евагрия, Иоанн был обвинён в оригенизме {a.o. апокатастасис}. John Chrysostom, was an important Early Church Father who served as archbishop of Constantinople. He is known for his preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, and his ascetic sensibilities. John Chrysostom. John Chrysostom (c. 347 – 14 September 407) was an important Early Church Father who served as archbishop of Constantinople. He is known for his preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, and his ascetic sensibilities. During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch (386–387), John denounced Jews and Judaizing Christians in a series of eight homilies delivered to Christians in his congregation who were taking part in Jewish festivals and other Jewish observances. It is disputed whether the main target were specifically Judaizers or Jews in general. His homilies were expressed in the conventional manner, utilizing the uncompromising rhetorical form known as the psogos (Greek: blame, censure).[citation needed] One of the purposes of these homilies was to prevent Christians from participating in Jewish customs, and thus prevent the perceived erosion of Chrysostom's flock. In his homilies, John criticized those "Judaizing Christians", who were participating in Jewish festivals and taking part in other Jewish observances, such as the shabbat, submitted to circumcision and made pilgrimage to Jewish holy places. There had been a revival of Jewish faith and tolerance in Antioch in 361, so Chrysostom's followers and the greater Christian community were in contact with Jews frequently, and Chrysostom was concerned that this interaction would draw Christians away from their faith identity. John claimed that synagogues were full of Christians, especially Christian women, on the shabbats and Jewish festivals, because they loved the solemnity of the Jewish liturgy and enjoyed listening to the shofar on Rosh Hashanah, and applauded famous preachers in accordance with the contemporary custom. A more recent theory is that he instead tried to persuade Jewish Christians, who for centuries had kept connections with Jews and Judaism, to choose between Judaism and Christianity. He also refers to Jews as outsiders, illnesses, idolaters, lewd, and beast-like. Due to Chrysostom's stature in the Christian church, both locally and within the greater church hierarchy, his sermons were fairly successful in spreading anti-Jewish sentiment. This prompted the introduction of anti-Jewish legislation and social regulations, increasing the separation between the two communities. According to Patristics scholars, opposition to any particular view during the late 4th century was conventionally expressed in a manner, utilizing the rhetorical form known as the psogos, whose literary conventions were to vilify opponents in an uncompromising manner; thus, it has been argued that to call Chrysostom an "anti-Semite" is to employ anachronistic terminology in a way incongruous with historical context and record. This does not preclude assertions that Chrysostom's theology was a form of anti-Jewish supersessionism. Anglican priest James Parkes called Chrysostom's writing on Jews "the most horrible and violent denunciations of Judaism to be found in the writings of a Christian theologian". According to historian William I. Brustein, his sermons against Jews gave further momentum to the idea that Jews are collectively responsible for the death of Jesus {deicide}. Steven Katz cites Chrysostom's homilies as “the decisive turn in the history of Christian anti-Judaism, a turn whose ultimate disfiguring consequence was enacted in the political antisemitism of Adolf Hitler.” // «Где подвиги, там и награды; где войны, там и почести; где борьба, там и венец» (Иоанн Златоуст, сет. О терпении, кончине этого века и Втором пришествии) Легеев Михаил - Введение в аскетику // Оригенизм // Ориген. Император Юстиниан и осуждение Оригена. В это же время в Константинополь прибывает апокрисиарий римского папы диакон Пелагий и активно выступает против оригенизма. Желая спасти религиозное единство империи, Юстиниан «решил использовать полностью своё право христианского василевса нажимать на иерархическую и богословскую среду, склонную поднять опасную волну безысходных и длительных споров».

* Иероним Стридонский [Jerome of Stridon] (342-419/420; писатель, аскет) . Софро́ний Евсе́вий Иерони́м (лат. Sophronius Eusebius Hieronymus; Святой Иероним) — иллирийский церковный писатель, аскет, создатель канонического латинского текста Библии. Некоторые средневековые источники, как, например, Мавро Орбини, ошибочно приписывали ему и создание глаголического алфавита. Почитается в православной и католической церквях как святой (в Римско-католической — также как один из учителей Церкви). Память в католической церкви — 30 сентября, в Русской православной церкви (именуется Иероним Блаженный) — 28 июня (15 июня по юлианскому календарю), в Элладской православной церкви — 15 июня по григорианскому календарю. Художественно-символически изображается либо как кардинал, в широкополой шляпе и красной сутане, либо как кающийся в простом одеянии и бьющий себя камнем в грудь: Иероним был папским советником, титул кардинала был создан позднее и присвоен ему, можно сказать, посмертно; другие его символы — Библия, миниатюрная церковь и лев. Jerome [of Stridon] (c 342/7-420). Jerome (Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Latin priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. The protégé of Pope Damasus I who died in December of 384, Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families. Eschatology. Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist". "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope Damasus I. He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" {lawlessness} written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views." To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry, who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and 11 was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist. "We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings. ...After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor." In his Commentary on Daniel, he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, {Antichrist} one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form." Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God." // 2 Thessalonians 2:7 For the secret power {mystery} of lawlessness is already at work; but the one who now holds it back will continue to do so till he is taken out of the way. // Jerome (c. 347-419/20), one of the West's four doctors of the church, was recognized early on as one of the church's foremost translators, commentators and advocates of Christian asceticism. Skilled in Hebrew and Greek in addition to his native Latin, he was thoroughly familiar with Jewish traditions and brought them to bear on his understanding of the Old Testament. Beginning in 379, Jerome used his considerable linguistic skills to translate Origen's commentaries and, eventually, to translate and comment on Scripture himself. In 392, while preparing his Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible, Jerome wrote his commentary on Nahum, the first in a series of commentaries on five of the twelve minor prophets. Micah, Zephaniah, Haggai and Habakkuk soon followed. He was interrupted in 393 by the Origenist controversy, after which he became a vocal critic of Origen of Alexandria—a controversy he referred to in his commentaries on Jonah and Obadiah in 396. (...) Throughout these commentaries Jerome displays his familiarity with both Hebrew and Greek texts. His spiritual exegesis relies heavily on the exegetical work of Origen. Jerome looks beyond the nationalistic sentiments of the prophets to see a wider message about God's mercy and justice. His commitment to the truthfulness of the Scriptures as the Word of God is exemplified by his defense of the historicity of Jonah. He finds the fundamental message of the prophets to be the intent to console the saints, so that they may disdain the things of this world and prepare themselves for the day of judgment. Jerome - Commentaries on the Twelve Prophets

* Аврелий Августин [Augustine of Hippo] (354-430). Авре́лий Августи́н Иппони́йский (лат. Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis), или Августи́н Афр (лат. Augustinus Afer), также Авре́лий Августи́н Блаже́нный — христианский богослов и философ, влиятельнейший проповедник, епископ Гиппонский (с 395 года), один из Отцов христианской церкви (в Православии таковым не является). Августин является святым католической, православной и лютеранской церквей (при этом в Православии обычно именуется с эпитетом блаженный — Блаженный Августин). Некоторая часть сведений об Августине восходит к его автобиографической «Исповеди» («Confessiones»). Его самый известный теологический и философский труд — «О граде Божием». Через манихейство, скептицизм и неоплатонизм пришёл к христианству, учение которого о грехопадении и помиловании произвело на него сильное впечатление. В частности, он защищает (против Пелагия) учение о предопределении: человеку заранее предопределено Богом блаженство или проклятие. Человеческая история, которую Августин излагает в своей книге «О граде Божием», «первой мировой истории», в его понимании есть борьба двух враждебных царств — царства приверженцев всего земного, врагов Божьих, то есть светского мира (civitas terrena или diaboli), и царства Божия (civitas dei). При этом он отождествляет Царство Божие, в соответствии с его земной формой существования, с римской церковью. Августин учит о самодостоверности человеческого сознания (основа достоверности есть Бог) и познавательной силе любви. При сотворении мира Бог заложил в материальный мир в зародыше формы всех вещей, из которых они затем самостоятельно развиваются. Augustine of Hippo. Augustine of Hippo (Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian, philosopher, and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings influenced the development of Western philosophy and Western Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. His many important works include The City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and Confessions. According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith". In his youth he was drawn to the major Persian religion, Manichaeism, and later to Neoplatonism. After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made significant contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustine's On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He is also a preeminent Catholic Doctor of the Church and the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him one of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation and divine grace. Protestant Reformers generally, and Martin Luther in particular, held Augustine in preeminence among early Church Fathers. Luther was, from 1505 to 1521, a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, his teachings are more disputed and were notably attacked by John Romanides. But other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque, was rejected by the Orthodox Church. Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint and has influenced some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably Gregory Palamas. The historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has written: "Augustine's impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example, Paul of Tarsus, has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes." Eschatology. Augustine originally believed in premillennialism, namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection, but later rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. He was the first theologian to expound a systematic doctrine of amillennialism, although some theologians and Christian historians believe his position was closer to that of modern postmillennialists. The Catholic Church during the Medieval period built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church. During the Reformation theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death, and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those who died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.

* Иоанн Кущник (V в). Иоа́нн Ку́щник — христианский святой, почитается в лике преподобных. Происходил из знатной константинопольской семьи.

* Псевдо-Дионисий Ареопагит [Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite ] (V/VI). Псе́вдо-Диони́сий Ареопаги́т — неизвестный автор сборника (корпуса) богословских сочинений на греческом языке, получившего название «Ареопагитики», «Ареопагитик», «Ареопагитского корпуса» (лат. Corpus Areopagiticum) и приписывавшегося жившему в I веке н. э. ученику апостола Павла Дионисию Ареопагиту. В трактате «О небесной иерархии» даётся позитивный очерк свойств Бога, тем самым произведение можно считать образцом катафатического богословия. Автор придерживается так называемого александрийского мировоззрения, согласно которому мир организован по иерархическому принципу: в нём есть ступени, определяемые степенью близости к Богу. Псевдо-Дионисий первым в христианском богословии создал подробную и продуманную классификацию ангелов. Хотя она недостаточно чётко соответствует сложному и запутанному миру ангелов Ветхого Завета, метод организации ангельской иерархии через триады (с одновременной апелляцией к Троице) открывал путь к примирению с христианством неоплатоников. Впрочем, аббат Рене Рок (фр. René Roques) усматривал связь иерархии с герметизмом, а мистик Роберт Фладд составлял таблицы соответствия между ангельскими чинами и сфирот. Небесная иерархия Псевдо-Дионисия выглядит так: Высшая иерархия - серафимы, херувимы, престолы; Средняя иерархия: господства, силы, власти; Низшая иерархия: начала, архангелы, ангелы. Классификация ангелов из трактата «О небесной иерархии» была принята последующими богословами (Фомой Аквинским, Григорием Паламой) с незначительными поправками. Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (or Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite) was a Syrian Christian theologian and Neoplatonic philosopher of the late 5th to early 6th century, who wrote a set of works known as the Corpus Areopagiticum or Corpus Dionysiacum. The author pseudonymously identifies himself in the corpus as "Dionysios", portraying himself as Dionysius the Areopagite, the Athenian convert of Paul the Apostle mentioned in Acts 17:34. This false attribution to the earliest decades of Christianity resulted in the work being given great authority in subsequent theological writing in both the East and the West. The Dionysian writings and their mystical teaching were universally accepted throughout the East, amongst both Chalcedonians and non-Chalcedonians, and also had a strong impact in later medieval western mysticism, most notably Meister Eckhart. Its influence decreased in the West with the fifteenth-century demonstration of its later dating, but in recent decades, interest has increased again in the Corpus Areopagiticum.

* Пелагия/Пелагея [Антиохийская/Кающаяся/Блудница; Pelagia of Antioch, Pelagia the Penitent/Harlot] (ум ок 457). {<> Пелагия [дева Антиохийская; Pelagia of Antioch, Pelagia the Virgin] (ум IV в)} Пелагия Антиохийская (Елеонская, Палестинская) — христианская святая, почитается в лике преподобных, память совершается 8 октября по юлианскому календарю. Родилась в Антиохии сирийской, отличалась необыкновенной красотой, до обращения ко Христу вела легкомысленный и распущенный образ жизни, была танцовщицей и блудницей. Имела прозвище Маргарита, что значит «Жемчужина». (...) Став христианкой, Пелагия собрала своё имущество и принесла Нонну. Нонн велел раздать его нищим, говоря: «Пусть будет умно потрачено худо собранное». Несколько дней спустя, Пелагия, переодевшись в мужскую одежду, покинула город. Она пришла в Иерусалим и здесь приняла монашеский постриг. Её приняли за юношу. Устроив себе келью на Елеонской горе, она затворилась в ней и начала вести строгую монашескую жизнь в покаянии, посте и молитве. Жители окружающих мест считали её за инока Пелагия, евнуха. После нескольких лет, достигнув многих духовных дарований, инок Пелагий скончался (приблизительно в 457 году). При погребении выяснилось, что почивший инок — женщина. // Пелагия, известная как Пелагия Антиохийская , Пелагия Кающаяся и Пелагия Блудница , была христианской святой и отшельницей в 4 или 5 веке. Пелагея умерла в результате крайнего аскетизма, истощившего ее до такой степени, что ее нельзя было больше узнать. По православной традиции ее похоронили в келье. Узнав, что прославленным монахом была женщина, святые отцы попытались сохранить это в секрете, но слухи распространились, и ее мощи привлекли паломников даже из Иерихона и из Иорданской долины. Pelagia. Pelagia, distinguished as Pelagia of Antioch, Pelagia the Penitent, and Pelagia the Harlot, was a Christian saint and hermit in the 4th or 5th century. Pelagia died as a result of extreme asceticism, which had emaciated her to the point she could no longer be recognized. According to Orthodox tradition, she was buried in her cell. Upon the discovery that the renowned monk had been a woman, the holy fathers tried to keep it a secret, but the gossip spread and her relics drew pilgrims from as far off as Jericho and the Jordan valley. Pelagia's story is attributed to James or Jacob (Latin: Jacobus), deacon of the church of Heliopolis (modern Baalbek). He states that Margarita was the "foremost actress" and a prominent harlot in Antioch. During one of the city's church councils, she passed by on a donkey surrounded by her entourage and a "worldly crowd". Perfumed and "immodestly bareheaded", the outlines of her body were "clearly visible" beneath her gold cloth, pearls, and precious stones, which ran from her bare shoulders to her feet. Most of the fathers were shamed into looking away, but the bishop Nonnus stared openly and confessed himself "delighted". Mocking his fellows, he condemned both them and himself for taking less care of their souls than she had of her body. She appeared at his next Sunday sermon and Nonnus's sermon on hell and the goodness of paradise prompted her to repent. (...) She freed her slaves, male and female, "taking their golden torcs off with her own hands". // qaz.wiki - Пелагея

* Григорий I, папа римский [Григорий I Великий; Pope Gregory I, Gregory the Great] (ок 540-604). Григо́рий I Вели́кий (лат. Gregorius PP. I), называемый в православной традиции Григорий Двоеслов (лат. Gregorius Dialogus) — Папа Римский с 3 сентября 590 года по 12 марта 604 года. Один из латинских великих учителей (отцов) Церкви. Почитается Православной и Католической Церквями, Англиканским сообществом и некоторыми Лютеранскими церквями. Протестантский реформатор Жан Кальвин восхищался Григорием и считал его последним хорошим папой. Pope Gregory I. Pope Gregory I (Latin: Gregorius I; c. 540 – 12 March 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was the bishop of Rome from 3 September 590 to his death. He is known for instigating the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome, the Gregorian Mission, to convert the then-pagan Anglo-Saxons in England to Christianity. Gregory is also well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. The epithet Saint Gregory the Dialogist has been attached to him in Eastern Christianity because of his Dialogues. English translations of Eastern texts sometimes list him as Gregory "Dialogos", or the Anglo-Latinate equivalent "Dialogus". A Roman senator's son and himself the prefect of Rome at 30, Gregory lived in a monastery he established on his family estate before becoming a papal ambassador and then pope. Although he was the first pope from a monastic background, his prior political experiences may have helped him to be a talented administrator. During his papacy, he greatly surpassed with his administration the emperors in improving the welfare of the people of Rome, and he challenged the theological views of Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople before the emperor Tiberius II. Gregory regained papal authority in Spain and France and sent missionaries to England, including Augustine of Canterbury and Paulinus of York. The realignment of barbarian allegiance to Rome from their Arian Christian alliances shaped medieval Europe. Gregory saw Franks, Lombards, and Visigoths align with Rome in religion. He also combated the Donatist heresy, popular particularly in North Africa at the time. Throughout the Middle Ages, he was known as "the Father of Christian Worship" because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day. His contributions to the development of the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, still in use in the Byzantine Rite, were so significant that he is generally recognized as its de facto author. Gregory is one of the Latin Fathers and a Doctor of the Church. He is considered a saint in the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, various Lutheran denominations, and other Protestant denominations. Immediately after his death, Gregory was canonized by popular acclaim. The Protestant reformer John Calvin admired Gregory greatly and declared in his Institutes that Gregory was the last good Pope. He is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers.

* Иоанн Лествичник [John Climacus, John of the Ladder] (525—595 (605) или 579-649). Иоа́нн Ле́ствичник — христианский богослов, византийский философ, игумен Синайского монастыря. Почитается святым Православной (в лике преподобных, память в 4-е воскресенье Великого поста и 30 марта [12 апреля]) и Католической (память 30 марта) церквями. Автор крупного богословского произведения, называемого «Лествицей», по которому и получил прозвание Лествичника. Иоанн Лествичник объединил духовные и аскетические традиции египетских монастырей. Он является автором «Лествицы» (от ст.-слав. «лестница») (варианты — Лествица райская, Скрижали духовные). Книга написана в середине VI века по просьбе Иоанна, игумена Раифского монастыря: «преподай нам невежественным то, что ты видел в боговидении, как древний Моисей, и на той же горе; и изложи это в книге, как на богописанных скрижалях, в назидание новых Израильтян». Представляет собой руководство к нравственному самосовершенствованию. Образ «Лествицы» заимствован из Библии, где описано видение Лестницы Иакова, по которой восходят ангелы (Быт. 28:12). Сочинение относится к разряду духовной аскетической литературы. Иоанн написал также книгу «К пастырю» об обязанностях духовных пастырей. Сочинения Иоанна Лествичника включены в 88-й том Patrologia Graeca. // John Climacus. John Climacus, also known as John of the Ladder, John Scholasticus and John Sinaites, was a 6th–7th-century Christian monk at the monastery on Mount Sinai. He is revered as a saint by the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches.

* Иоанн IV Постник [John the Faster] (ум 595). Иоанн IV Постник — Константинопольский патриарх в 582—595 годах. Почитается как святой в лике святителей. Сын бедных родителей; предполагал заниматься каким-либо ремеслом и не получил школьного образования, но, под влиянием одного монаха, стал строгим аскетом-постником и был посвящён в диаконы. Избранный в патриархи, он хотел было спастись от этого сана бегством, но был удержан. Отличался особой любовью к бедным и сам оставался всю жизнь бедняком. Его называли вместилищем добродетелей. Иоанн Постник первым стал употреблять в отношении своей кафедры наименование «Вселенский патриархат», чем вызвал резкую критику со стороны папы римского святого Григория I Великого (Григория Двоеслова), который в противовес ему принял сохраняющийся за Папами до сих пор титул «Раб Рабов Божьих» («servus servorum Dei»). Сочинения: «О покаянии» — наставление о распознавании и различении грехов; «Об исповеди» — наставления о том, как поступать священнику с кающимся (суровые правила Василии Великого об епитимьях здесь значительно ослаблены); «Послание к Деве, посвятившей себя Богу»; «О лжепророках и учителях». Кроме того, в рукописи известны его сочинения «О исходе души» и «О литургии». John IV of Constantinople. John IV (died September 2, 595), also known as John Nesteutes (John the Faster), was the 33rd bishop or Patriarch of Constantinople (April 11, 582 – 595). He was the first to assume the title Ecumenical Patriarch. He is regarded as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church. // In the 35 Canons of Saint John the Faster, the penance for any monk caught in homosexual acts includes a xerophagic diet for three years along with other penances. (Xerophagy) // Ioan Cozma - THE PEDAGOGIC AND THERAPEUTIC CHARACTER OF SAINT JOHN THE FASTER’S CANONS FROM ACRIBIA TO CONDESCENSION (PDF)

* Андрей Кесарийский [Andreas of Caesarea] (VI-VII). Андрей Кесарийский — архиепископ Кесарии Каппадокийской. Почитается в Православной церкви как святой в лике святителей. О жизни Андрея Кесарийского не сохранилось каких-либо сведений, спорным является даже период его жизни. Известность ему принесло толкование на книгу Откровения Иоанна Богослова, включённое в 106 том Patrologia Graeca и пользующиеся популярностью среди православных, особенно у русских старообрядцев. Толкование Андрея Кесарийского (написано между 563 и 614 годами) является одним из первых святоотеческих комментариев Апокалипсиса и оказало огромное влияние на последующих богословов. При его написании Андрей доказывает подлинность данной новозаветной книги ссылками на раннехристианских авторов: Папия Иерапольского, Иринея Лионского, Мефодия Патарского и Ипполита Римского. Andreas of Caesarea. Andreas of Caesarea (563 – 637 {??}) was a Greek theological writer and bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. Karl Krumbacher assigned him to the first half of the sixth century. He is variously placed by other scholars, from the fifth to the ninth century. However, today it is unquestionable that his life spanned the late sixth/early seventh centuries. His principal work is a commentary on the Book of Revelation (Patrologia Graeca vol. 106, cols. 215–458 and 1387–94) and is the oldest Greek patristic commentary on that book of the Bible. The very first Greek commentary on Revelation barely predates Andrew's work and is attributed to "Oikoumenios." Oikoumenios is not a recognized Father of the Church. Therefore, Andrew of Caesarea's work is correctly identified as the earliest Greek Patristic commentary on the Apocalypse. Most subsequent Eastern Christian commentators of the Book of Revelation have drawn heavily upon Andrew and his commentary, which was preserved in nearly 100 complete Greek manuscripts, as well in translation in Armenian, Georgian, and Slavonic manuscripts. Andrew's most important contribution was that he preserved many existing Eastern traditions associated with Revelation, both oral and written. His commentary was so influential that it preserved a specific text type for Revelation, known as the Andreas type.

* Икумений Триккский [Oecumenius] (VI/VII-X; богослов). Епископ Икумений (Экумений, греч. Οικουμένιος) — епископ Трикки во Фракии, богослов, живший в середине X века. От него остались толкования на послания апостола Павла и соборные, на книгу Деяний и на Апокалипсис. Как экзегет Икумений следует главным образом св. Иоанну Златоусту и другим святым отцам, нередко включая в свои труды обширные цитаты из их писаний. Комментарии Икумения можно отнести к разряду катен (свод толкований нескольких святых отцов). Согласно Сиксту Сиенскому, он написал комментарий к первым 8-ми книгам Ветхого Завета. Однако этот труд не сохранился. Oecumenius. Oecumenius, once believed to be a Bishop of Trikka (now Trikala) in Thessaly writing about 990 (according to Cave, Scriptorum eccles. hist. liter. (Basel, 1745), p. 112), was reputed to be the author of several commentaries on books of the New Testament. However, more recently scholars have redated Oecumenius' Commentary on the Apocalypse to the early seventh century, or the late sixth century, and have located Oecumenius as writing in Asia Minor. Manuscripts of the eleventh century contain commentaries on the Acts of the Apostles and on the Catholic and Pauline epistles, attributed since the sixteenth century to Oecumenius. Commentary on the Apocalypse. // His principal work is a commentary on the Book of Revelation (Patrologia Graeca vol. 106, cols. 215–458 and 1387–94) and is the oldest Greek patristic commentary on that book of the Bible. The very first Greek commentary on Revelation barely predates Andrew's work and is attributed to Oikoumenios. “Oikoumenios” is not a recognized Father of the Church. Therefore, Andrew of Caesarea's work is correctly identified as the earliest Greek patristic commentary on the Apocalypse. (Andreas of Caesarea)

* Псевдо-Мефодий Патарский [Pseudo-Methodius] (сер VII в). Псевдо-Мефодий Патарский — сирийский писатель середины VII в., живший в Северной Месопотамии, автор эсхатологического сочинения  «Видение Мефодия Патарского» («Откровение Мефодия Патарского»), приписанного в средневековой рукописной традиции епископу малоазийского города Патары Мефодию (Олимпийскому), жившему в III—IV вв. На греческий язык этот апокалипсис был переведен не ранее 678 г. «Видение Мефодия Патарского» — это краткий рассказ об истории мира в стиле устных легенд от Адама до светопреставления, распределенный по тысячелетиям на 7 периодов. Во второй половине «Откровения» повествуется о седьмом тысячелетии, о тех событиях, которые будут предшествовать кончине мира и происходить в последний период его существования (царство Антихриста, второе пришествие Христа, Страшный суд). Пророческая часть привлекала к себе наибольшее внимание средневековых читателей. В ней среди прочего имеется предсказание о завоевании Византии и Персии «измаильтянами». Согласно пророчеству, они ворвутся в Константинополь, разрушив ворота Ксилокерка, рядом с Золотыми воротами. Однако затем император ромеев {Third Rome} восстанет, разгромит врагов, установит мир и спокойствие на земле. После этого через «ворота Севера» вторгнутся могучие и жестокие племена, но стараниями пророков Еноха и Илии, посланными Господом с небес, чтобы разоблачить обман «сына погибели», северные племена покинут лагерь зла и присоединятся к праведникам. Вслед за тем появится знак, предвещающий приход Сына Человеческого, побивающего «сына погибели» и ввергающего нечестивых в ад. На Руси славянский перевод апокалипсиса Псевдо-Мефодия Патарского стал известен очень рано — не позже начала XII в. В XV в. возникла оригинальная русская переработка «Видения», в основу которой лег старый славянский перевод, дополненный из других источников — библейского повествования о Гедеоне, апокрифа о потопе, «Сказания о царе Михаиле», сказаний об Антихристе и сведений из «Жития святого Андрея Юродивого». Византийский словарь: в 2 т. / [ сост. Общ. Ред. К.А. Филатова]. СПб.: Амфора. ТИД Амфора: РХГА: Издательство Олега Абышко, 2011, т. 2, с.233-234. http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_p/psevdomefodi.php || Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius. Written in Syriac in the late seventh century, the Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius shaped and influenced Christian eschatological thinking in the Middle Ages. Falsely attributed to Methodius of Olympus, a fourth century Church Father, the work attempts to make sense of the Islamic conquest of the Near East. The Apocalypse is noted for incorporating numerous aspects of Christian eschatology such as the invasion of Gog and Magog, the rise of the Antichrist, and the tribulations that precede the end of the world. The Apocalypse, however, adds a new element to Christian eschatology: the rise of a messianic Roman emperor. This element would remain in Christian apocalyptic literature until the end of the medieval period. Translations into Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Arabic, and other languages from the early eighth century onwards would facilitate the Apocalypse's influence. The manuscript begins with a history of the world, starting with Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, through to the Muslim conquests, and into the end-times. One notable feature about the work is the presence of sexuality with regards to Christian behavior in the end days—specifically discussing swinging, homosexuality, and cross-dressing as indicators of a sinful society. It is only then that the text says the "sons of Ishmael", that is Muslims, will emerge from the desert of Ethribus to inflict God's punishment upon the Christians who "slipped into depravity". The Apocalypse also recounts the events that took place at the hands of Muslims in the previous decades. In invoking figures in other Christian eschatological literature, such as Gog and Magog, Pseudo-Methodius attempts to legitimize his place as a fourth century Church Father. The manuscript also notes the rise of an Emperor-Saviour figure, echoing the fourth century AD prophecy contributed to the legendary Tiburtine Sibyl. This Roman emperor will save the Christian lands from "the sons of Ishmael", place his crown upon the cross "for the sake of the common salvation of all" thereby saving Christendom as a whole. The work is notable for its vivid description and brutality. Descriptions of drinking the blood of cattle, stabbing pregnant women, and feeding babies to animals permeate throughout the author's work. Ballard notes, however, that Pseudo-Methodius deviates from previous eschatological literature, such as Revelation, in that the Apocalypse utilizes Roman emperors as agents of change. For this reason, Griffith notes, the Apocalypse marks the end of the antique era and the dawn of the Middle Ages.[failed verification] Guenther also notes that Pseudo-Methodius was influenced by the books Revelation and Daniel, maintaining the lineage of Christian literature. This is an important feature as it shows the author was most likely a Christian cleric and was familiar with past Christian writings. By introducing new features into Christian literature while keeping core Christian beliefs and teachings intact helped to make the Apocalypse accessible to the laity, as well. Part of the Apocalypse's influence is attributed to its ability to reflect the beliefs of Eastern Roman citizens; they are merely acting out foretold events, and mankind is bound with the fate of the empire and the capital. This, again, helped to endear the piece to a widespread Byzantine audience. Historical context. Rome and Sassanid Persia had been at war with one another for much of the first quarter of the seventh century. With both empires still feeling the effects of such a long series of battles, an Arab threat took advantage of the weakening empires. The Persians faced defeat west of the Euphrates in Qadisiyya in what Griffith calls "the beginning of the demise of both Roman and Persian rule for good". This demise would continue throughout the 630s and 640s, as the Arabs conquered much of the Middle East and the Mediterranean world. In 635, Damascus fell, Jerusalem and Antioch followed in 637, Edessa in 640, Alexandria in 642, and Seleucia/Ctesiphon in 645. Three out of the five patriarchates of Roman Christendom were under Arab Muslim rule. In 674, the Ummayad Caliph Muawiyah launched a land and sea assault on Constantinople. Within three years he was defeated and turned his attention on the rest of the surviving Roman Empire, namely the Middle East, Greece, and the Balkans. As Ballard notes, Constantinople was "reduced to a small Christian enclave within an ocean of Islam." A campaign by the new Muslim rulers was set in place in order to remove any public display of Christian symbolism through building Islamic-styled buildings and issuing coins declaring an Islamic triumph. The most dramatic of such constructions was the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. The inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock are taken from the Quran and "proclaim the arrival of a powerful empire that was founded on pure monotheist belief." This, as Ballard and Griffith both note, was in response to Christians believing in the trinity, and their supposed worship of the Virgin Mary and the Saints, something that Muslims saw as polytheistic. To defend themselves and without any real power or authority, Christians turned to writing. The hardships Christians faced in a Muslim territory caused a "literary awakening", and the earliest of these texts were written in Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. Syriac writers in particular reacted to their world in apocalyptic terms – the fall of their Christian empire was continuing with each Muslim conquest and Syriac writers saw these conquests as a punishment from God. The most well-known of these texts was the Apocalypse attributed to Pseudo-Methodius. // Tiburtine Sibyl. The Tiburtine Sibyl or Albunea was a Roman sibyl, whose seat was the ancient Etruscan town of Tibur (modern Tivoli).  The mythic meeting of Cæsar Augustus with the Sibyl, of whom he inquired whether he should be worshiped as a god, was often depicted by artists from the late Middle Ages onwards. In the versions known to the later Middle Ages, for example the account in the Golden Legend, Augustus asked the sibyl whether he should be worshipped as a god, as the Roman Senate had ordered. She replied by showing him a vision of a young woman with a baby boy, high in the sky, while a voice from the heavens said "This is the virgin who shall conceive the saviour of the world". The episode was regarded as a prefiguration of the Biblical Magi's visit to the new-born Jesus. Whether the sibyl in question was the Etruscan Sibyl of Tibur or the Greek Sibyl of Cumæ is not always clear.

* Симеон Новый Богослов [Symeon the New Theologian] (949-1022). Симеон Новый Богослов — монах, богослов, сочинитель «Гимнов» (поэтических духовных стихов), один из ярчайших представителей традиции исихазма. Наряду с двумя великими богословами Церкви — Иоанном Богословом и Григорием Богословом, Симеон был удостоен имени Новый Богослов. Почитается Православной церковью в лике преподобного. Формулируя мысль Симеона кратчайшим образом, можно сказать, что главным для него в христианской вере является личный, непосредственный опыт богообщения. В этом он продолжает традицию преп. Макария Великого. Симеон, исходя из своего опыта, свидетельствует, что Бог открывается человеку и становится видимым, причём не в будущей жизни, но уже на земле: "Прежде воскресения тел бывает воскресение душ {??}". Особое место в учении Симеона занимает восприятие Бога как света, который зрится очами ума, когда тот бывает немыслящим. Бог сотворил два мира: видимый и невидимый. В этих мирах есть два солнца: "чувственное солнце" и "солнце правды". Симеон Новый Богослов проповедует отречение от мира, однако полагает, что для христианина есть три "жизни" (пути): пустынная, общежительная и начальственная. Подвижническая деятельность преп. Симеона предвосхищала исихазм XIV века. Symeon the New Theologian. Symeon the New Theologian (Greek: Συμεὼν ὁ Νέος Θεολόγος; 949–1022) was a Byzantine Christian monk and poet who was the last of three saints canonized by the Eastern Orthodox church and given the title of "Theologian" (along with John the Apostle and Gregory of Nazianzus). "Theologian" was not applied to Symeon in the modern academic sense of theological study; the title was designed only to recognize someone who spoke from personal experience of the vision of God. One of his principal teachings was that humans could and should experience theoria (literally "contemplation," or direct experience of God). Symeon was born into the Byzantine nobility and given a traditional education. At age fourteen he met Symeon the Studite, a renowned monk of the Monastery of Stoudios in Constantinople, who convinced him to give his own life to prayer and asceticism under the elder Symeon's guidance. By the time he was thirty, Symeon the New Theologian became the abbot of the Monastery of Saint Mamas, a position he held for twenty-five years. He attracted many monks and clergy with his reputation for sanctity, though his teachings brought him into conflict with church authorities, who would eventually send him into exile. His most well known disciple was Nicetas Stethatos who wrote the Life of Symeon. Symeon is recognized as the first Byzantine mystic to freely share his own mystical experiences. Some of his writings are included in the Philokalia, a collection of texts by early Christian mystics on contemplative prayer and hesychast teachings. Symeon wrote and spoke frequently about the importance of experiencing directly the grace of God, often talking about his own experiences of God as divine light. Another common subject in his writings was the need of putting oneself under the guidance of a spiritual father. The authority for many of his teachings derived from the traditions of the Desert Fathers, early Christian monks and ascetics. Symeon's writings include Hymns of Divine Love, Ethical Discourses, and The Catechetical Discourses.

* Иоанн Дамаскин [John of Damascus, Chrysorrhoas] (ок 675-ок 753/780). Иоа́нн Дамаски́н (араб.‎ Юханна ад-Димашки; лат. Iohannes Damascenus — Иоанн из Дамаска), также известный как греч. {Chrysorrhoas}, то есть «золотой поток»; урождённый Мансур ибн Серджун ат-Таглиби — христианский святой, почитаемый в лике преподобных, один из Отцов Церкви, богослов, философ и гимнограф. Средневековый способ расчёта пасхалии (даты Пасхи) известен как «рука Иоанна Дамаскина» («рука дамаскинова»). (...) Сочинения. Иоанн Дамаскин известен как крупнейший систематизатор христианского вероучения; ему принадлежит фундаментальный труд «Источник знания», включающий в себя философский («Диалектика»), обличительный («О ересях») и догматический («Точное изложение Православной веры») разделы. К полемическим сочинениям относятся «Три слова в защиту иконопочитания» (против иконоборцев), слова против несториан, монофизитов (акефалов, яковитов), монофелитов, манихеев и возможно, «Беседа сарацина с христианином» (против ислама). Кроме того, Иоанну принадлежит ряд проповедей о Богородице. Экзегетикой Иоанн Дамаскин занимался сравнительно мало, он составил несамостоятельные толкования на Послания апостола Павла, которыми, возможно, пользовались епископ Икумений и блаженный Феофилакт Болгарский. Иоанну приписывается житие святых Варлаама и Иоасафа, но, по утверждению протоиерея Георгия Флоровского, оно было составлено ещё в середине VII века в обители преподобного Саввы другим Иоанном. Иоанном был написан ряд канонов, особых песнопений палестинского типа, с IX века вошедших в употребление восточной Церкви. Им были написаны Канон Пасхе, Рождеству и ряду других христианских праздников. Кроме того, считается, что Иоанн составил воскресный «Октоих» (Осмогласник, Октай). Именем Иоанна Дамаскина надписаны некоторые молитвы, вошедшие в состав последования вечерних молитв и ко Святому Причащению. John of Damascus. John of Damascus (Greek, romanized: Ioánnēs ho Damaskēnós; Latin: Ioannes Damascenus; Arabic, romanized: Yūḥannā ad-Dimashqī) or John Damascene was a Christian monk, priest, hymnographer, and apologist. Born and raised in Damascus c. 675 or 676; the precise date and place of his death is not known, though tradition places it at his monastery, Mar Saba, near Jerusalem on 4 December 749. A polymath whose fields of interest and contribution included law, theology, philosophy, and music, he was given the by-name of Chrysorrhoas (literally "streaming with gold", i.e. "the golden speaker"). He wrote works expounding the Christian faith, and composed hymns which are still used both liturgically in Eastern Christian practice throughout the world as well as in western Lutheranism at Easter. He is one of the Fathers of the Eastern Orthodox Church and is best known for his strong defence of icons. The Catholic Church regards him as a Doctor of the Church, often referred to as the Doctor of the Assumption due to his writings on the Assumption of Mary. He was also a prominent exponent of perichoresis, and employed the concept as a technical term to describe both the interpenetration of the divine and human natures of Christ and the relationship between the hypostases of the Trinity. John is at the end of the Patristic period of dogmatic development, and his contribution less that of theological innovation than that of a summary of the developments of the centuries before him. In Catholic theology, he is therefore known as the "last of the Greek Fathers". The main source of information for the life of John of Damascus is a work attributed to one John of Jerusalem, identified therein as the Patriarch of Jerusalem. This is an excerpted translation into Greek of an earlier Arabic text. The Arabic original contains a prologue not found in most other translations, and was written by an Arab monk, Michael, who explained that he decided to write his biography in 1084 because none was available in his day. However, the main Arabic text seems to have been written by an earlier author sometime between the early 9th and late 10th century. Written from a hagiographical point of view and prone to exaggeration and some legendary details, it is not the best historical source for his life, but is widely reproduced and considered to contain elements of some value. The hagiographic novel Barlaam and Josaphat, traditionally attributed to John, is in fact a work of the 10th century. Teachings and dogmatic works. Fountain of Knowledge or The Fountain of Wisdom, is divided into three parts: 1) Philosophical Chapters (Kefálea filosofiká) – commonly called "Dialectic", it deals mostly with logic, its primary purpose being to prepare the reader for a better understanding of the rest of the book. 2) Concerning Heresy (Perì eréseon) – the last chapter of this part (Chapter 101) deals with the Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Unlike earlier sections devoted to other heresies, which are disposed of succinctly in just a few lines, this chapter runs into several pages. It constitutes one of the first Christian refutations of Islam. One of the most dominant translations is his polemical work Peri haireseon translated from Greek into Latin. His manuscript is one of the first Orthodox Christian refutations of Islam which has influenced the Western Catholic Church's attitude. It was among the first sources representing the Prophet of Islam Muhammad to the West as "false prophet," and "Antichrist." 3) An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (Ékdosis akribès tēs Orthodóxou Písteōs) – a summary of the dogmatic writings of the Early Church Fathers. This writing was the first work of systematic theology in Eastern Christianity and an important influence on later Scholastic works. {Other works:} Against the Jacobites; Against the Nestorians; Dialogue against the Manichees; Elementary Introduction into Dogmas; Letter on the Thrice-Holy Hymn; On Right Thinking; On the Faith, Against the Nestorians; On the Two Wills in Christ (Against the Monothelites); Sacred Parallels (dubious); Octoechos (the church's liturgical book of eight tones); On Dragons and Ghosts.

* Gratian [canon lawyer; Грациан, юрист] (d 1150). Gratian (Medieval Latin: Gratianus) was a canon lawyer from Etruria, probably operating in the former feudal state of Matilda of Tuscany (mainly in Tuscany and Emilia region) as well as in Reims (1131), Rome, Bologna, Venice (1143) and Chiusi. He flourished in the second quarter of the twelfth century. He died on 10 August around the middle of the 12th century as bishop of Chiusi in Tuscany. Little else is known about him. (Decretum Gratiani)  Грациан (юрист). Грациан (род. в XI веке — умер в 1150), упоминаемый под разными именами (Франческо, Иоаннес, Джиованни) — монах-правовед XII века, автор так называемого «Decretum Gratiani», где приведены в согласование положения светского и церковного права. (...) Грациан - одна из значительнейших фигур в истории образования и науки. // Gratian is considered to be a turning point in the history of canon law, as he marks the watershed between the learned law of the late Middle Ages and the other, ‘non-learned’, more intuitive use of canon law of the early and high Middle Ages. Gratian represents the shift between the collectors of normative texts and the erudite interpretation of these texts. Once, he was even named the ‘father of the science of canon law’. Therefore, it is not surprising that Gratian has been in the focus of historical research for a long time: whereas some scholars tried to unravel the mysteries of his life, locating him as a Camaldolese monk in Bologna or placing him as a bishop to Chiusi in central Italy, others focussed on his Concordantia discordantium canonum, briefly known as the Decretum Gratiani, in order to learn more about the theory of canon law in the middle of the twelfth century. Stephan Dusil - The Decretum of Gratian: A Janus-Faced Collection

* Климент Смолятич [Kliment Smoliatich] (ум 1164+; митрополит, богослов). Кли́мент (Клим) Смоля́тич — древнерусский средневековый мыслитель, Митрополит Киевский и всея Руси (1147—1155), церковный писатель, первый древнерусский богослов, второй митрополит восточнославянского происхождения. Был высокообразованным человеком своего времени. В летописи упоминается как такой «книжник и философ, каких в Русской земле ещё не бывало». (...) В 1147 по инициативе киевского князя Изяслава Мстиславича, Клим Смолятич был поставлен митрополитом Киевским и Всея Руси без полагающейся санкции Константинопольского патриарха, что вызвало огромное неудовольствие и противодействие среди церковнослужителей-греков. Однако, патриарший престол пустовал с февраля по декабрь 1147 года) после скандального патриаршества Михаила II Куркуаса и Косьмы II Аттика и утвердить его кандидатуру было некому. (...) До нас дошло лишь одно произведение, бесспорно ему принадлежащее — «Послание, написано Климентом митрополитом русским, Фоме, прозвитеру, истолковано Афанасием мнихом». Старший из известных списков Послания датируется XV веком. Памятник состоит из двух частей. Первая — предисловие, в котором Климент отводит упрёки Фомы, обвиняющего его в тщеславии, в том, что Климент мнит себя «философом», вместо «почитаемых писаний» ссылается на Гомера, Аристотеля и Платона. Климент отстаивает своё право «пытати потонку божественных писаний», то есть прибегать при толковании библейских образов и выражений к притчам и иносказаниям, а не ограничиваться буквальным их пониманием. Kliment Smoliatich. Klim (Kliment) Smoliatich (born ? in the Smolensk region, died after 1164) was an Ancient Rus Orthodox metropolitan (official title: Metropolitan of Kiev and All-Rus'). A Kiev metropolitan (1147–1154) and church figure from the Smolensk region (from which his surname is derived), Belarus. A monk of the Zarub Monastery, Klym was elected metropolitan by a synod of the hierarchy of the Rus' church under pressure from Prince Iziaslav Mstislavich. However, his election was never confirmed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Klym was also opposed by Prince Yuri Dolgorukiy, Iziaslav's rival, and the bishop of Novgorod the Great, Niphont. After Iziaslav's death he was forced to abdicate {why ??} as metropolitan and became bishop of Volodymyr-Volynskyi. Klym was an erudite sermonizer and philosopher. His best-known work is Poslaniie do presvitera Khomy (Letter to Presbyter Khoma), which has survived in two manuscript forms. It contains a symbolic explanation of the Holy Scriptures, and demonstrates his knowledge of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle. Other works are also attributed to him.

* Gerhoh of Reichersberg [Герхох Райхерсбергский] (1093-1169; anti-scholastic theologian). Gerhoh of Reichersberg (Latin: Gerhohus Reicherspergensis) was one of the most distinguished theologians of Germany in the twelfth century. He was provost of Reichersberg Abbey and a Canon Regular. (..) Gerhoh was a reformer in the spirit of the Gregorian ideas. He aimed particularly and zealously at the reform of the clergy; it seemed to him that this object could not be attained unless the community life were generally adopted. (...) There are also a number of polemical works and letters against the Christological views of Abelard, Gilbert de la Porrée, and Bishop Eberhard of Bamberg; others deal with the errors of Folmar, Provost of Triefenstein, on the subject of the Holy Eucharist. // ГЕРХОХ РАЙХЕРСБЕРГСКИЙ. [лат. Gerhohus Reichersbergensis, Reicherspergensis; нем. Gerho(c)h von Reichersberg] (1092/93, Поллинг, В. Бавария - 27.06.1169, Райхерсберг, близ Пассау, В. Австрия), богослов, деятель григорианской реформы, настоятель мон-ря регулярных каноников. Сведения о жизни Г. Р. содержатся в Житии, к-рое было написано и включено мон. Райхерсберга Магнусом († 1195) в «Райхерсбергскую хронику», созданную на основе монастырских анналов, составленных при Г. Р., а также в сочинениях Г. Р., его друзей и противников. Г. Р. получил образование в монастырских школах в Поллинге, во Фрайзинге, в Мосбурге, в Хильдесхайме. В 1119 г. был назначен каноником и главой кафедральной школы Аугсбурга, но в 1121 г. выступил против еп. Аугсбургского Германа, обвиненного в симонии, и был вынужден уехать в Роттенбух (Райтенбух). В 1123 г. вернулся и сопровождал еп. Германа на Латеранский I Собор, где посредничал в снятии с него отлучения. В 1124 г. под влиянием некоего отшельника обратился к идеалу апостольской бедности и вместе с отцом и братьями вступил в мон-рь каноников-августинцев в Роттенбухе. В 1126 г. еп. Куно Регенсбургский рукоположил Г. Р. во пресвитера. Г. Р. получил приход Кам в Баварии, но в 1128 г. из-за преследований сторонников династии Штауфенов вернулся в Регенсбург, где жил без должности, написал неск. полемических сочинений в поддержку григорианской реформы. Его радикальные взгляды, осуждение всех клириков, живущих не по уставу регулярных каноников, как еретиков и схизматиков и отказ признавать действительность совершенных ими богослужений и освящений {'unworthy priests'} стали причиной обвинения Г. Р. в ереси {<> Neronov and friends: 'wrath of the world'}. Но на судебном процессе он сумел оправдаться, заручившись поддержкой папы Иннокентия II. В 1132 г. архиеп. Конрад I Зальцбургский назначил Г. Р. пробстом мон-ря августинцев в Райхерсберге. Г. Р. последовательно выступал за проведение в жизнь идей григорианской реформы, пытался добиться введения общежитийного устава и идеалов vita communis для всего светского клира, но преуспел лишь в реформировании устава августинских мон-рей в Роттенбухе, Зальцбурге и Райхерсберге. Пользовался расположением папы Евгения III и архиеп. Конрада I, исполнял их дипломатические поручения, участвовал в имперских хофтагах, неск. раз бывал в Риме, сопровождал папских легатов во время визитаций в Чехии (1143), Юж. Германии (1151), в 1152 г. исполнял обязанности папского визитатора в Венгрии. В 1159 г. поддержал папу Александра III в конфликте с имп. Фридрихом I Барбароссой и антипапой Виктором IV, подвергся преследованиям сторонников императора и нашел убежище в бенедиктинском мон-ре Адмонт (1166). В 1167 г. Г. Р. вернулся в Райхерсберг. Благодаря деятельности Г. Р. и его братьев, занимавших после него должность пробста, мон-рь расширил владения и стал центром интеллектуальной деятельности {<> Josephite argument vs Non-possessors}. Отстаивая идеи реформы католич. Церкви, Г. Р. поддерживал контакты с крупнейшими теологами и церковными деятелями XII в., в т. ч. с Бернардом Клервоским, Оттоном Фрайзингенским, Арнольдом Брешианским. Выступал против «новой», схоластической диалектики Абеляра, Гильберта Порретанского, Петра Ломбардского. Полемизировал с христологическим учением Эберхарда Бамбергского и Фольмара Трифенштайнского, в к-ром усматривал признаки адопцианства (1164). Сохранилось ок. 15 богословских, экзегетических и полемических сочинений Г. Р. Количество их списков очень незначительно, бо́льшая часть происходит из Райхерсберга. Принципы церковной реформы, необходимость разделения компетенций духовной и светской властей, критика обмирщения клира содержатся в полемических соч. (...). Христологической полемике с Абеляром, Гильбертом Порретанским, Эберхардом Бамбергским и Фольмаром Трифенштайнским посвящены «Contra duas haereses» (Против двух ересей, 1147), «Liber de novitatibus huius temporis» (Книга о новшествах этого времени, 1156), «Utrum Christus homo sit Filius Dei et Deus natura an gratia» (Является ли Сын Человеческий сыном Бога или Богом по природе или по благодати, 1164), «De gloria et honore Filii hominis» (Книга о славе и достоинстве Сына Человеческого, 1163). Богословские проблемы разбираются в трудах «Expositio super canonem missae» (Комментарий на Изложение канона мессы), «Libellus de ordine donorum S. Spiritus» (Книжица о степенях даров Св. Духа, 1142). Главным экзегетическим трудом Г. Р. является «Tractatus in psalmos» (Комментарий на псалмы, 1144-1167/68), считающийся самым большим по объему средневек. комментарием на псалмы. В трактовке богословских проблем Г. Р. опирается на сочинения Руперта Дойцского, Илария из Пуатье, Бернарда Клервоского. Эсхатологический характер носят поздние сочинения Г. Р. «De investigatione Antichristi» (О приметах Антихриста, 1160/62) и «De quarta vigilia noctis» (О четвертой ночной страже, 1167). Научное изучение трудов Г. Р. началось в XIX в. В историографии присутствуют различные оценки деятельности и личности Г. Р. Он считается крупным оригинальным теологом (иногда его называют нем. Бернардом Клервоским), а его сочинения - вершинами досхоластической теологии. Ученые отмечают обширные познания {knowledge} Г. Р. в области экзегетики, догматики, истории Церкви, высоко оценивают развиваемые им принципы толкования текста Библии в его целостности, а не по фрагментам. Однако исследователи сходятся в том, что сочинения Г. Р. были мало известны в средние века и не оказали существенного влияния на развитие богословской мысли; его критика схоластической диалектики поставила его вне круга источников «новой теологии» XII в., к-рая стала основным направлением развития богословия в развитое средневековье. Православная энциклопедия - ГЕРХОХ РАЙХЕРСБЕРГСКИЙ

* Pope Innocent III [Иннокентий III] (1160/61-1216). Pope Innocent III (Latin: Innocentius III; born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni) was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 to his death. Pope Innocent was one of the most powerful and influential of the medieval popes. He exerted a wide influence over the Christian states of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings. He was central in supporting the Catholic Church's reforms of ecclesiastical affairs through his decretals and the Fourth Lateran Council. This resulted in a considerable refinement of Western canon law. He is furthermore notable for using interdict and other censures to compel princes to obey his decisions, although these measures were not uniformly successful. Innocent greatly extended the scope of the Crusades, directing crusades against Muslim Iberia and the Holy Land as well as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He organized the Fourth Crusade of 1202–1204, which ended in the sack of Constantinople. Although the attack on Constantinople went against his explicit orders, and the Crusaders were subsequently excommunicated, Innocent reluctantly accepted this result, seeing it as the will of God to reunite the Latin and Orthodox Churches. In the event, the sack of Constantinople and the subsequent period of Frankokratia {"the Latin Empire (known to the Byzantines as the Frankokratia or the Latin Occupation)"} heightened the hostility between the Latin and Greek churches. (The Byzantine empire was restored in 1261 but never regained its former strength, finally falling in 1453.) // Innocent III, original name Lothar of Segni, Italian Lotario di Segni, (born 1160/61, Gavignano Castle, Campagna di Roma, Papal States [now in Italy]—died July 16, 1216, Perugia), the most significant pope of the Middle Ages. Elected pope on January 8, 1198, Innocent III reformed the Roman Curia, reestablished and expanded the pope’s authority over the Papal States, worked tirelessly to launch Crusades to recover the Holy Land, combated heresy in Italy and southern France, shaped a powerful and original doctrine of papal power within the church and in secular affairs, and in 1215 presided over the fourth Lateran Council, which reformed many clerical and lay practices within the church. (Britannica - Innocent III) // Иннокентий III , оригинальное название Лотар из Segni , итальянский Лотарио ди Сеньи , (род 1160/61, Gavignano замок, Campagna ди Рома , Папская [ в настоящее время в Италии] -died 16 июля 1216, Перуджа), самый значительный папа из Средний возраст. Избранный папой 8 января 1198 года Иннокентий III реформировал римскую курию , восстановил и расширил власть папы над Папской областью , неустанно работал над началом крестовых походов для восстановления Святой Земли, боролся с ересью в Италии и на юге Франции, сформировал могущественный и оригинальный учение о папской власти в церкви и всветскими делами, а в 1215 году председательствовал на четвертом Латеранском соборе , который реформировал многие церковные и мирские обычаи в церкви. Иннокентий III | папа

* Pope Celestine V [Целестин V] (1215-1296). Pope Celestine V (Latin: Caelestinus V), born Pietro Angelerio (according to some sources Angelario, Angelieri, Angelliero, or Angeleri), also known as Pietro da Morrone, Peter of Morrone, and Peter Celestine, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States for five months from 5 July to 13 December 1294, when he resigned. He was also a monk and hermit who founded the order of the Celestines as a branch of the Benedictine order. He was elected pope in the Catholic Church's last non-conclave papal election, ending a two-year impasse. Among the few edicts of his to remain in force was the confirmation of the right of the pope to abdicate; nearly all of his other official acts were annulled by his successor, Boniface VIII. On 13 December 1294, a week after issuing the decree, Celestine resigned, stating his desire to return to his humble, pre-papal life. He was subsequently imprisoned by Boniface in the castle of Fumone in the Lazio region, in order to prevent his potential installation as antipope. He died in prison on 19 May 1296 at the age of 81. Celestine was canonized on 5 May 1313 by Pope Clement V. No subsequent pope has taken the name Celestine. // Further, his {Fiore's} admirers came to believe the beginning of this New Age would be ushered in by the coming of a virtuous Pope from the Franciscan order {Angelic pope}. They considered Celestine V (elected in 1294) to be this Pope. His resignation, and death in 1296 in the dungeons of the next Pope {Boniface VIII}, was considered a sign of the coming of the Anti-Christ. (Joachimites)

* Pope Boniface VIII [Бонифаций VIII] (c 1230-1303). Pope Boniface VIII (Latin: Bonifatius PP. VIII; born Benedetto Caetani) was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 December 1294 to his death in 1303. Caetani was of baronial origin with family connections to the papacy. He succeeded Pope Celestine V, who had abdicated from the papal throne. Boniface spent his early career abroad in diplomatic roles. Boniface VIII put forward some of the strongest claims of any pope to temporal as well as spiritual power. He involved himself often with foreign affairs, including in France, Sicily, Italy and the First War of Scottish Independence. These views, and his chronic intervention in "temporal" affairs, led to many bitter quarrels with Albert I of Germany, Philip IV of France, and Dante Alighieri, who placed the pope in the Eighth Circle of Hell in his Divine Comedy, among the simoniacs. Boniface systematized canon law by collecting it in a new volume, the Liber Sextus (1298), which continues to be important source material for canon lawyers. He established the first Catholic "jubilee" year to take place in Rome. Boniface had first entered into conflict with Philip IV of France in 1296 when the latter sought to reinforce the nascent nation state by imposing taxes on the clergy and barring them from administration of the law. Boniface excommunicated Philip and all others who prevented French clergy from traveling to the Holy See, after which the king sent his troops to attack the pope's residence in Anagni on 7 September 1303 and capture him. Boniface was held for three days and beaten badly. King Philip IV pressured Pope Clement V of the Avignon Papacy into staging a posthumous trial of Boniface. He was accused of heresy and sodomy, but no verdict against him was delivered.

* Акиндин [монах] (XIII-XIV). мон. «Богородицкой лавры» (вероятно, Отроча тверского мон-ря, тесно связанного с вел. князем тверским и с Тверской епископской кафедрой), автор послания св. блгв. вел. кн. Михаилу Ярославичу Тверскому (1282-1318) «Написание о поставляющих мзды ради» (между 1310-1314). Сведения об А. имеются только в этом послании, опубликованном по единственному известному списку (в Требнике 1505 г. из новгородского Лисицкого мон-ря - РНБ. Солов. № 1085/1194). Согласно посланию, А. был отправлен еп. Тверским Андреем к К-польскому Патриарху Нифонту I (1312-1314) для разрешения вопроса о взимании платы за поставление на священные степени. А. обвиняет митрополита (имя его в послании не названо, но речь идет о митр. Киевском свт. Петре) в том, что он требует плату за поставление епископов, а те в свою очередь требуют плату от клириков. Эту практику А. считает порочной perverse, поскольку из-за нее все помрачаются «страстию сребролюбия». На Руси вопрос о взимании денег при поставлении на священные степени стал особенно трудно разрешимым после Собора 1273 г., строго осудившего симонию, но в то же время установившего размеры платы за поставление («протори»). А. призывает к строгому соблюдению церковных правил, запрещающих симонию («несть ино ничтоже величие правоверным кристианом, якоже правила церковная крепко держати»), и к выступлению против митрополита («царь еси, господине княже, в своей земли, ты истязан имаши быти на Страшнем и нелицемернем судищи Христове, аже смолчиши митрополиту»). По др. источникам известно, что вел. кн. Михаил добился созыва церковного Собора для суда над митр. Петром, на к-рый явились представители К-польского Патриарха, и митр. Петр был полностью оправдан, что доказывает несправедливость обвинений, выдвигавшихся А. Православная энциклопедия - АКИНДИН

* Григорий Синаит [Gregory of Sinai] (ок 1268-1346). Григо́рий Синаи́т — православный святой, преподобный, возродил на Афоне практику Иисусовой молитвы. Сведения о жизни святого Григория на русском языке имеются в двух редакциях его жития: в «Афонском патерике», где дается перевод с греческого жития, написанного Никодимом Агиоритом (Святогорцем), и житие преподобного, описанное его учеником святым Каллистом, Патриархом Константинопольским. На Синае преподобный был пострижен в малую схиму. Здесь он вел истинно подвижническую жизнь, за что и получил наименование Синаита. Самоотверженное {selfless} послушание, смирение, пост, почти неусыпная {unremitting, vigilant} молитва (иногда на вершине горы Синай, где Моисею Боговидцу Открылся Господь), усердное чтение Священного Писания, ежедневная исповедь игумену всех своих греховных помыслов, монастырский труд, а в промежутках — переписывание священных книг с искусством каллиграфа. Григорий Синаит является одним из авторов известного сборника духовных поучений «Добротолюбие». К его наследию относятся наставления о внутренней жизни, 15 глав о безмолвии и 142 главы о заповедях. Святой известен также как автор духовных песен. // Gregory of Sinai. Gregory of Sinai was instrumental in the emergence of Hesychasm on Athos in the early 14th century. Born in Smyrna, he was captured by Seljuk Turks as a young man, and eventually ransomed to Cyprus, where he became a monk at Saint Catherine's Monastery.

* Григорий Акиндин [Gregory Akindynos] (ок 1300-1348; богослов). Григо́рий Аки́ндин — византийский религиозный деятель болгарского происхождения, богослов, монах, поэт, один из главных участников варлаамитского движения, родом из Македонии. (...) Когда Варлаам Калабрийский стал распространять в Византии свою ересь, Григорий Акиндин с 1337 года стал своего рода посредником в спорах между ним и Григорием Паламой, который был его учителем. В 1340 году он сказал Варлааму о том, что его учение потерпит крах, однако в 1341 году неожиданно повернулся против Паламы, сделавшись ревностным оппонентом Паламы после возвращения Варлаама в Калабрию. Он вёл диспуты с паламитами и писал сочинения против своего учителя Паламы. Он расходился с Варлаамом во взглядах на существо и энергию Божества, а также и на сущность фаворского света и занял самостоятельное положение среди византийских учёных, принимавших участие в религиозно-философском движении XIV века. С осени 1342 года по 1347 год нашёл убежище в монастыре Ирины Хумнены. Был отлучён от церкви на Константинопольском соборе 1347 года и умер, по-видимому, во время эпидемии чумы в 1348 году. Gregory Akindynos. Gregory Akindynos (Latinized as Gregorius Acindynus) (Greek: Γρηγόριος Ἀκίνδυνος) (ca. 1300 – 1348) was a Byzantine theologian of Bulgarian origin. A native of Prilep, he moved from Pelagonia to Thessaloniki and studied under Thomas Magistros and Gregory Bryennios. He became an admirer of Nikephoros Gregoras after he was shown an astronomical treatise of that scholar by his friend Balsamon in 1332, writing him a letter in which he calls him a "sea of wisdom". From Thessaloniki, he intended to move on to Mount Athos, but for reasons unknown, he was refused. He was involved in the theological dispute surrounding the doctrine of Uncreated Light between Gregory Palamas and Barlaam of Calabria in the 1340s. As a student of Palamas', he mediated between the two from 1337, warning Barlaam in 1340 that his attempts against his doctrine would be futile, but from 1341 he became critical of Palamas' position, denouncing it as Messalianism {Euchites; Lycopetrus; 'mystical materialism': the essence (ousia) of the Trinity could be perceived by the carnal senses; unification of God with the souls of the perfect; the state of perfection, freedom from the world and passion, is therefore attained solely by prayer, not through the church, baptism and or any of the sacraments; freed from moral obligations or ecclesiastical discipline.}, and came to be Palamas' most dangerous adversary after Barlaam's return to Calabria. He was excommunicated at the Council of Constantinople of 1347 and died in exile, apparently a victim of the plague of 1348.

* Jean Courtecuisse [Жан Курткюис, Бревикокс; Lat. Johannes Breviscoxe] (c 1350-1423; theologian). Jean Courtecuisse was a French bishop and theologian, who was elected bishop of Paris and bishop of Geneva. (...) Courtecuisse was a prolific writer, leaving sermons in Latin and French, several theological works and a treatise entitled On Faith and the Church (Tractatus de fide et Ecclesia, Romano pontifice et concilii generali). // Стало быть, августиновская точка зрения на град Божий допускала, чтобы созидание церковных структур предшествовало размышлениям о природе непостижимого {earthly vs heavenly}. И следовательно, те, кто направлял энергию преподавания и проповедей на строительство земного храма, отнюдь не были погрязшими в обыденности routine посредственностями mediocrity. Для спасения душ нужно было в первую очередь вернуть церкви ее монолитность {one Christian faith ??} и придать ей новый облик, представляющий все фракции духовенства, участвовавшего в борьбе. И в Констанце, и в Базеле церковь во время соборов раздиралась be torn между новыми течениями, которые позже были названы национализмом и корпоративным духом — в частности, у тех, кто работал в университете, — и пыталась сохранять равновесие между монархическим централизмом и союзом епископов, за которыми стояли верующие. Собор был замкнутой сферой. Помимо функции хранителя догм, унаследованной им от прежних эпох, и в частности от великих соборов XIII века, он выполнял также функцию политической силы в лоне церкви и на вершине иерархии. Наиболее полно видение этой церковной структуры, призванной стать инструментом искупления, выразил один парижский теолог. В своем «Трактате о вере и о церкви» магистр Жан Курткюис сформулировал — хотя и не решил — дилемму: является ли брак Христа и церкви плодом веры или же плодом милосердия, то есть любви? Удобные формулы: Христос-вождь, Христос-царь, Христос-супруг — оказались одновременно и вопросами. Теология облагораживалась become ennobled/elevated/refined, становясь более человечной {??}. Все тонуло, естественно, в пустословии, но усилие было искренним. Жан Фавье. Франсуа Вийон. (Jean Favier. Francois Villon)

* Jean Gerson [Жан Жерсон] (1363-1429; scholar, theologian). Jean Charlier de Gerson (13 December 1363 – 12 July 1429) was a French scholar, educator, reformer, and poet, Chancellor of the University of Paris, a guiding light of the conciliar movement and one of the most prominent theologians at the Council of Constance. He was one of the first thinkers to develop what would later come to be called natural rights theory, and was also one of the first individuals to defend Joan of Arc and proclaim her supernatural vocation as authentic. (...) Gerson's writings Gerson wished to banish scholastic subtleties from the studies of the university, and at the same time to put some evangelical warmth into them, giving them a more spiritual and practical focus. He was called at this period of his life Doctor Christianissimus; later his devotional and pastoral writings brought him the title Doctor Consolatorius. His plan was to make theology plain and simple by adopting a mystical theology that he distinguished from purely scientific theology. His method was a clear exposition of the principles of theology where clearness was possible, with a due recognition of the place of mystery in the Christian system of doctrine. Like the great nominalist William of Ockham, he saved himself from rationalism by laying hold on mysticism—the Christian mysticism of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite {mystical, Neoplatonic, negative theology}, the school of Richard of St. Victor, Bernard of Clairvaux, and Saint Bonaventure. While scholars have contended that Gerson adopted several nominalist tenets, others have maintained that he was anti-nominalist in his basic outlook. In Catholic circles, Gerson's theology is usually held in high esteem, while his ecclesiastical doctrines are sometimes viewed as suspect due to his support for conciliarism. He thought that, by laying hold of mysticism, he would equally guard against the folly of the old scholasticism, and the seductions of such Averroistic pantheism as was preached by heretics like Amalric of Bena. His plans for the reformation of university studies (...). The study of the Bible and of the fathers was to supersede the idle questions {of scholasticism (??)} of the schools, and in his Tract. contra romantiam de rosa (iii. 297) he warns against the irreverent Roman de la rose of Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun—a position in which he was joined by Christine de Pizan. He was often weary of the chancellorship—it involved him in strife and in money difficulties; he grew tired of public life, and longed for learned leisure. To obtain it he accepted the deanery of Bruges from the duke of Burgundy, but after a short sojourn he returned to Paris and to the chancellorship. Gerson's 1402 treatise De Vita Spirituali Animae was one of the first attempts at developing natural rights theory. He thought that freedom could be exchanged in the same way as property. Gerson and the Great Schism. {Western Schism, Schism of 1378 (1378 to 1417), in which bishops residing in Rome and Avignon both claimed to be the true pope <> East-West Schism} Gerson's chief work was toward reconciling the great schism. Gregory XI had died in 1378 in Rome, one year after Gerson went to the college of Navarre, and since his death there were two claimants to the papacy, both elected by the cardinals, one in Rome and one in Avignon. This caused great confusion, as the Church could, at one time, only have one legitimate successor of St. Peter. As the popes had been under French influence so long that it appeared to France a political necessity to have the pope reside in a French area, the French monarchy was quick to side with the Avignon pope, thus helping the schism take root. Due to this, pious Frenchmen felt themselves somewhat responsible for the sins and scandals of the schism. Hence the melancholy piety of Gerson, Pierre d'Ailly and their companions, and the energy with which they strove to bring the schism to an end. (...) Cult of St. Joseph. In 1407, Louis I, Duke of Orléans was assassinated in the streets of Paris, on orders of the Duke of Burgundy John the Fearless. His defense counsel, Jean Petit, argued that it was a justifiable act of "tyrannicide". Gerson denounced Petit's propositions openly and often, and attempted to have his theory of tyrannicide condemned. In doing, he gained the enmity of the powerful Duke of Burgundy. During the Cabochien revolt of spring 1413, his house in Paris was plundered and he only escaped assassination by taking refuge for two months up under the vaulted roofs of Notre-Dame. Gerson believed he had escaped the mob through the protection of St. Joseph. When Gerson emerged from his cathedral refuge in 1413 he began to promote devotion to St. Joseph. He wrote a lengthy treatise in French titled Consideration sur Saint Joseph, and his long poem in Latin, the Josephina, promoted the saint and his virtues across western Europe. Contrary to popular iconography which depicted the saint as an elderly man, Gerson argued that Joseph must have been a young, strong man, well able to support and protect the Holy Family. He described Jesus on the Flight into Egypt as "fugitive and a foreigner". In 1416 at the Council of Constance, Gerson urged the establishment of a feast day honoring the Betrothal of Mary and Joseph, for which he wrote an office. Жерсон, Жан. Жан Жерсо́н (фр. Jean Gerson; 14 декабря 1363, Жерсон, Шампань — 12 июля 1429, Лион) — виднейший теолог XIV в., доктор теологии (с 1392 г.), канцлер Парижского университета (с 1395 г.), реформатор системы образования. (...) Мысли Жерсона о судьбах культуры, о воспитании, просвещении, об учёности, о роли и значении преподавателя вошли в золотой фонд западной цивилизации.

* Thomas à Kempis [Фома Кемпийский] (1380-1471; author, mystic) was a German-Dutch canon regular of the late medieval period and the author of The Imitation of Christ, one of the most popular and best known Christian devotional books. Фома Кемпийский - (нем. Thomas von Kempen)  немецкий католический монах, средневековый августинский регулярный каноник, переписчик, писатель и мистик, предполагаемый автор известного трактата «О подражании Христу». [E114]

* Виссарион Никейский [Василий Трапезунтский; Bessarion] (1403-1472; гуманист, философ, богослов). Виссарион Никейский, до принятия в 1427 году пострига — Василий Трапезунтский, — учёный грек, выступивший инициатором унии православной и католической церквей (1439) и произведённый за это папой Евгением IV в кардиналы. Один из выдающихся гуманистов XV столетия, Виссарион способствовал пробуждению в Европе интереса к древнегреческому языку и культуре. Он основал в Риме академию, посвящённую изучению наследия Платона. Заботясь о судьбе членов византийского императорского дома Палеологов, он первый начал переговоры относительно брака Ивана III Васильевича с Софьей Палеолог и больше других содействовал устройству этого брака. Переговоры об унии. (...) Избранный в число представителей Греческой церкви на соборе, который предположен был в Италии для подготовки соединения церквей, Виссарион, ввиду этой его миссии возведённый в сан архиепископа г. Никеи, вместе с императором Иоанном VIII отправился на Запад с желанием и надеждою отстоять в прениях с католическими богословами учение своей церкви и, действительно, на соборе в Ферраре (1438) долгое время защищал это учение. Личное разъединение Виссариона с приверженцем ортодоксального православия Марком Эфесским, желание через соединение церквей спасти Византийскую империю от грозившей ей со стороны турок гибели, а также уверенность в том, что услуги унии и для него лично не останутся бесполезными, — всё это повело к тому, что Виссарион пошел на уступки католикам. Эта перемена в Виссарионе ясно обнаружилась после перенесения соборных заседаний (1439) во Флоренцию, где при особенном участии Виссариона и состоялась известная уния между церквами на условии полной уступки со стороны греков латинянам по всем пунктам разногласий между церквами, вследствие чего Виссарион был обвинен православными иерархами в том, что «продал свою веру». (...) Bessarion. Bessarion (2 January 1403 – 18 November 1472) was a Byzantine Greek humanist and theologian, Catholic cardinal bishop and the titular Latin Patriarch of Constantinople and one of the famed Greek scholars who contributed to the great revival of letters in the 15th century. He was educated by Gemistus Pletho in Neoplatonic philosophy. Later, he became a Catholic cardinal, and was twice considered for the papacy. His baptismal name was Basil (Greek: Basileios or Basilios). The name Bessarion he took when entering the monastery. He has been mistakenly known also as Johannes Bessarion (Italian: Giovanni Bessarione) due to an erroneous interpretation of Gregory III Mammas. (...) Role in the Council of Ferrara. (...)

* Tomás de Torquemada [Grand Inquisitor; Томас Торквемада, Великий инквизитор] (1420-1498). Tomás de Torquemada OP, also anglicised as Thomas of Torquemada, was a Castilian Dominican friar and first Grand Inquisitor in Spain's movement to homogenise religious practices with those of the Catholic Church in the late 15th century, otherwise known as the Spanish Inquisition. Mainly because of persecution, Muslims and Jews in Spain at that time found it socially, politically, and economically expedient to convert to Catholicism (see Converso, Morisco, and Marrano). The existence of superficial converts from Judaism (i.e., Crypto-Jews) was perceived by the Spanish monarchs of that time (King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella) as a threat to the religious and social life of Spain. This led Torquemada, who himself had converso ancestors, to be one of the chief supporters of the Alhambra Decree that expelled the Jews from Spain in 1492. Owing to his widespread use of torture to extract confessions, and advocacy of burning at the stake those deemed guilty, Torquemada's name has become synonymous with cruelty, religious intolerance and fanaticism. Торквемада, Томас. Томáс де Торквемáда (исп. Tomás de Torquemada, или Торкемáда; 1420 — 16 сентября 1498) — основатель испанской инквизиции, первый великий инквизитор Испании. Был инициатором преследования мавров и евреев в Испании.

* Игнатий де Лойола [Ignatius of Loyola] (1491-1556; основатель ордена иезуитов). Игнáтий (Игнасио) де Лойо́ла (исп. Ignacio (Íñigo) López de Loyola, баск. Ignazio Loiolakoa) — римо-католический святой, основатель ордена иезуитов, видный деятель контрреформации, был офицером на испанской военной службе. Ignatius of Loyola. Ignatius of Loyola (c.  23 October 1491 – 31 July 1556), venerated as Saint Ignatius of Loyola, was a Spanish Basque Catholic priest and theologian, who together with Peter Faber and Francis Xavier founded the religious order called the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and became its first Superior General at Paris in 1541. The Jesuit order is dedicated to teaching and missionary work. Its members are bound by a special (fourth) vow of obedience to the sovereign pontiff to be ready to fulfil special papal missions. The society played an important role during the Counter-Reformation. Ignatius was noted as an inspired spiritual director. He recorded his method in a celebrated treatise called the Spiritual Exercises, a simple set of meditations, prayers, and other mental exercises, first published in 1548. It is known as "Ignatian spirituality". Ignatius was beatified in 1609, and canonized, receiving the title of Saint on 12 March 1622. His feast day is celebrated on 31 July. He is the patron saint of the Basque provinces of Gipuzkoa and Biscay as well as of the Society of Jesus. He was declared patron saint of all spiritual retreats by Pope Pius XI in 1922. Ignatius is also the foremost patron saint of soldiers.

* Кульман, Квирин [Квиринус Кульман; Quirinus Kuhlmann] (1651-1689; мистик, поэт, "хладный властитель") (нем. Quirinus Kuhlmann, также Culmannus, Kühlmann, Kuhlman) — немецкий мистик, писатель и поэт. Кульман переиначивает своё имя, называя себя Kühlmonarch («хладный властитель (монарх)»; Бог, по его представлению, охлаждает жар дьявола), разрабатывает утопические планы по объединению иудаизма, ислама и христианства в единую религию, объявляет себя «Сыном Сына Божьего» и проповедует собственное мистическое учение о скором крушении «Вавилона» и наступлении «иезуэлитского царства», в котором люди будут жить, «как до грехопадения Адама». Quirinus Kuhlmann was a German Baroque poet and mystic. Kuhlmann insisted upon the importance of the events of his life as confirmation of his divine mission. Known for his travels throughout Europe, Kuhlmann spent the last years of his life in Russia, where he was executed because he was considered theologically and politically dangerous. (...) In 1669, at the age of eighteen, Kuhlmann stated he had experienced a prophetic vision, "Zug zu Gott", an illumination vision of Jesus Christ, after reading Jakob Böhme's Mysterium Magnum and after making the acquaintance of Johann Rothe and his followers became convinced he was the new Jesuel eschatologically announcing the "New Millennium", his poem Love-Kisses XL1 recording that birth. (...) In Moscow Kuhlmann lived in the house of an adherent named Conrad Nordermann. Eventually, however, both men were denounced by Joachim Meinecke, the chief pastor of Moscow Lutherans, as theologically and politically dangerous. They were arrested and tortured, Kuhlmann's trial took plenty of time, because he didn't speak any Russian and interpreters were needed. His works were also studied by people with necessary linguistic competence and were then classified as heretic. He was tortured but refused to accept the charges that he had been sent to Russia by someone's orders and his interrogators realized that he was a religious zealot, but not a spy. He was finally burned at the stake for heresy, along with his works. // Квирин Кульман, последователь Я. Беме и проповедник пятого «иезуэлитского царства». Государство, религия, церковь в России и за рубежом No 1 (32) 2014 [P16]

* Нордерман, Конрад [Konrad Nordermann] (ум 1689) - пастор лютер. в Москве, с 1670 г., при двуцарственниках, за защиту Квирина Кульмана (1689 г.) подвергшийся пытке. Большая биографическая энциклопедия // (Кульман, Квирин) 27 апреля 1689 года Кульман добрался до Москвы, где был с восторгом встречен в Немецкой слободе, где действительно жили последователи Бёме и других мистиков, и нашёл себе покровителя — богатого купца Конрада Нордермана. // Konrad Nordermann (d. 1689), a Dutch merchant and resident of the Nemetskaia Sloboda (Foreign Quarter), in Moscow. Robert Collis - The Petrine Instauration: Religion, Esotericism and Science at the Court of Peter the Great, 1689-1725