* Cynicism [philosophy; Киники <> циник] (-V-V). Cynicism is a school of thought of ancient Greek philosophy {reflection of an existing attitude toward human existence, turned into a grand theory of ethics} as practiced by the Cynics (Ancient Greek: Kunikoi; Latin: Cynici). For the Cynics, the purpose of life is to live in virtue, in agreement with nature. As reasoning creatures, people can gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which is natural for themselves, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, and fame {ascetic}, and even flouting conventions openly and derisively in public {antinomian}. Instead, they were to lead a simple life {asceticism, simple living} free from all possessions. The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes, who had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BCE. He was followed by Diogenes, who lived in a ceramic jar on the streets of Athens. Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by Crates of Thebes, who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Cynicism gradually declined in importance after the 3rd century BCE, but it experienced a revival with the rise of the Roman Empire in the 1st century. Cynics could be found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the empire, and similar ascetic and rhetorical ideas appeared in early Christianity. By the 19th century, emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to the modern understanding of cynicism to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions. (...) {-> Eudaimonia, living in accord with Nature as understood by human reason} One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through ascetic practices (ἄσκησις) which help one become free from influences such as wealth, fame, and power that have no value in Nature. Instead they promoted living a life of ponos {hardship, toil}. For the Cynics, this did not seem to mean actual physical work. Diogenes of Sinope, for example, lived by begging, not by doing manual labor. Rather, it means deliberately choosing a hard life {<> life of hardening "закаливание организма"}—for instance, wearing only a thin cloak and going barefoot in winter. A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence (Αναιδεια) and defaces the nomos of society: the laws, customs, and social conventions that people take for granted. Thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power and reputation. A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result of convention. The Cynics adopted Heracles as their hero, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic. Heracles "was he who brought Cerberus, the hound of Hades, from the underworld, a point of special appeal to the dog-man, Diogenes." According to Lucian, "Cerberus and Cynic are surely related through the dog." The Cynic way of life required continuous training, not just in exercising judgments and mental impressions, but a physical training as well: "[Diogenes] used to say, that there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that of the body; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one was imperfect without the other, since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is good, depend equally on both mind and body." None of this meant that a Cynic would retreat from society. Cynics were in fact to live in the full glare of the public's gaze and be quite indifferent in the face of any insults which might result from their unconventional behaviour. The Cynics are said to have invented the idea of cosmopolitanism: when he was asked where he came from, Diogenes replied that he was "a citizen of the world, (kosmopolitês)." The ideal Cynic would evangelise; as the watchdog of humanity, they thought it their duty to hound people about the error of their ways. The example of the Cynic's life (and the use of the Cynic's biting satire) would dig up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday conventions. Although Cynicism concentrated primarily on ethics, some Cynics, such as Monimus {"There is obvious truth to the Cynic Monimus' statement that 'all is opinion'"}, addressed epistemology with regard to tuphos (τῦφος) expressing skeptical views. Cynic philosophy had a major impact on the Hellenistic world, ultimately becoming an important influence for Stoicism. The Stoic Apollodorus, writing in the 2nd century BC, stated that "Cynicism is the short path to virtue." Cynicism in the Roman world. (...) Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus, nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher, Demonax, in a dialogue. Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism, a view which led Epictetus to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse. According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "must know that he is sent as a messenger from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered." Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in breaking wind." Unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century AD, Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century. The emperor, Julian (ruled 361–363), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism. The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of Emesa in the late 5th century. A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria, he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism. (...) Cynicism and Christianity. Jesus as a Jewish Cynic. Some historians have noted the similarities between the teachings of Jesus and those of the Cynics. Some scholars have argued that the Q document, a hypothetical common source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke, has strong similarities to the teachings of the Cynics. Scholars on the quest for the historical Jesus, such as Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the Jesus Seminar, have argued that 1st-century AD Galilee was a world in which Hellenistic ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions. The city of Gadara, only a day's walk from Nazareth, was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy, and Mack has described Jesus as a "rather normal Cynic-type figure." For Crossan, Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from a Hellenistic Jewish tradition than either a Christ who would die as a substitute for sinners or a messiah who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel. Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance. Cynic influences on early Christianity. Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by early Christians, and Christians often employed the same rhetorical methods as the Cynics. Some Cynics were martyred for speaking out against the authorities. One Cynic, Peregrinus Proteus, lived for a time as a Christian before converting to Cynicism, whereas in the 4th century, Maximus of Alexandria, although a Christian, was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle. Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty, although they scorned Cynic shamelessness, Augustine stating that they had, "in violation of the modest instincts of men, boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion, worthy indeed of dogs." The ascetic orders of Christianity (such as the Desert Fathers) also had direct connection with the Cynics, as can be seen in the wandering mendicant monks of the early church, who in outward appearance and in many of their practices differed little from the Cynics of an earlier age. Emmanuel College scholar Leif E. Vaage compared the commonalities between the Q document and Cynic texts, such as the Cynic epistles. The epistles contain the wisdom and (often polemical) ethics preached by Cynics along with their sense of purity and aesthetic practices. During the 2nd century, Crescens the Cynic clashed with Justin Martyr, recorded as claiming the Christians were atheotatous (“the most atheist ones”), in reference to their rejection of the pagan gods and their absence of temples, statues, or sacrifices. This was a popular criticism of the Christians and it continued on into the 4th century.

* Skepticism [scepticism; Скептицизм]. Skepticism (American and Canadian English) or scepticism (British, Irish, Australian, and New Zealand English) is generally a questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more putative {taken for granted} instances of knowledge which are asserted to be mere belief or dogma. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology. More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), theism (skepticism about the existence of God), or the supernatural. Philosophical skepticism comes in various forms. Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters." More moderate forms of philosophical skepticism claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. Skepticism has also inspired a number of contemporary social movements. Religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence, and revelation. Scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method, to discover empirical evidence for them.

* Мистицизм [Mysticism] (prehistory). Мистици́зм (от др.-греч. таинственный) — философское и богословское учение, а также особый способ понимания и восприятия мира, основанный на эмоциях, интуиции и иррационализме. Под мистическим опытом понимают опыт прямого личностного общения, слияния или постижения некоей абсолютной реальности и абсолютной истины, а в рамках религий часто отождествляемой с Богом или Абсолютом. В утверждении возможности непосредственного единения с Богом или Абсолютом состоит суть мистицизма. Различные мистические доктрины встречаются во всех мировых религиях и верованиях и имеют общие черты: тяготеют к интуитивизму и символизму; предполагают практику определённых психофизических упражнений или медитаций, необходимых для достижения определённого состояния разума и психики. К мистицизму относят тантризм (индуистский и буддийский, или ваджраяну), дзэн, каббалу, розенкрейцерство, хасидизм, гностицизм, исихазм, суфизм и некоторые другие учения. Христианство. Мистицизм свойственен как западному, так и восточному христианству, однако есть разные точки зрения на значение мистицизма в разных конфессиях. Так, Иоанн Мейендорф и Евгений Торчинов считали, что мистицизм более развит в православии (исихазм). Павел Флоренский писал о «воображательной» мистике католиков, противопоставляемой «умной» мистике православных. По поводу последней Каллист (Уэр) пишет: Всякое истинно православное богословие мистично: как мистицизм в отрыве от богословия становится субъективизмом и ересью, так и богословие в отрыве от мистицизма вырождается в сухую схоластику, «академичную» в дурном смысле слова. Также мистицизм уникальным образом развит в ещё одной из ветвей христианства, а именно протестантизме. Античность. Ещё в античной Греции практиковались так называемые мистерии — тайные религиозные обряды, участники которых переживали особый вид религиозного опыта. Мистерии, как правило, включали в себя пиры, ритуальные пляски и церемонии, в частности, обряды посвящения, символизировавшие смерть и воскресение. Mysticism. Mysticism is the belief that union with or absorption into the Deity or the absolute, or the spiritual apprehension of knowledge inaccessible to the intellect, may be attained through contemplation and self-surrender. See also: personal transformation. [E154]

* Boethius [Boetius, Boëthius; Боэций] (c 477-524). Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, commonly called Boëthius (also Boetius), was a Roman senator, consul, magister officiorum, and philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born about a year after Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman Emperor and declared himself King of Italy. Boethius entered public service under Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great, who later imprisoned and executed him in 524 on charges of conspiracy to overthrow him. While jailed, Boethius composed his Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues, which became one of the most popular and influential works of the Middle Ages. As the author of numerous handbooks and translator of Plato and Aristotle, he became the main intermediary between Classical antiquity and following centuries. (...) In 520 Boethius was working to revitalize the relationship between the Roman See and the Constantinopolitan See; though still both a part of the same Church, disagreements had begun to emerge between them. This may have set in place a course of events that would lead to loss of royal favour. Five hundred years later, this continuing disagreement led to the East–West Schism in 1054, in which communion between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church was broken. (...) Theodoric was feeling threatened by international events. The Acacian schism had been resolved, and the Nicene Christian aristocrats of his kingdom were seeking to renew their ties with Constantinople. The Catholic Hilderic had become king of the Vandals and had put Theodoric's sister Amalafrida to death, and Arians in the East were being persecuted. Then there was the matter that with his previous ties to Theodahad, Boethius apparently found himself on the wrong side in the succession dispute following the untimely death of Eutharic, Theodoric's announced heir. (...) De consolatione philosophiae. Boethius's best known work is the Consolation of Philosophy (De consolatione philosophiae), which he wrote most likely while in exile under house arrest or in prison while awaiting his execution. This work represented an imaginary dialogue between himself and philosophy, with philosophy personified as a woman. The book argues that despite the apparent inequality of the world, there is, in Platonic fashion, a higher power and everything else is secondary to that divine Providence. De topicis differentiis. His completed translations of Aristotle's works on logic were the only significant portions of Aristotle available in Latin Christendom from the sixth century until the 12th century. .. two treatises on Topical argumentation {Topical logic is the logic of topical argument, a branch of rhetoric}, In Ciceronis Topica and De topicis differentiis. .. role of philosophy as "establish[ing] our judgment concerning the governing of life" .. definitions of logic from Plato, Aristotle and Cicero .. De arithmetica. Boethius chose to pass on the great Greco-Roman culture to future generations by writing manuals on music, astronomy, geometry and arithmetic. Several of Boethius' writings, which were hugely influential during the Middle Ages, drew on the thinking of Porphyry and Iamblichus .. De institutione musica. Boethius' De institutione musica was one of the first musical works to be printed in Venice between the years of 1491 and 1492. It was written toward the beginning of the sixth century and helped medieval authors during the ninth century understand Greek music. Like his Greek predecessors, Boethius believed that arithmetic and music were intertwined, and helped to mutually reinforce the understanding of each, and together exemplified the fundamental principles of order and harmony in the understanding of the universe as it was known during his time. In "De Musica", Boethius introduced the threefold classification of music: Musica mundana – music of the spheres/world; this "music" was not actually audible and was to be understood rather than heard Musica humana – harmony of human body and spiritual harmony; Musica instrumentalis – instrumental music. In De musica I.2, Boethius describes 'musica instrumentis' as music produced by something under tension (e.g., strings), by wind (e.g., aulos), by water, or by percussion (e.g., cymbals). .. In one of his works within De institutione musica, Boethius said that "music is so naturally united with us that we cannot be free from it even if we so desired." During the Middle Ages, Boethius was connected to several texts that were used to teach liberal arts. Although he did not address the subject of trivium {an introductory course at a medieval university involving the study of grammar, rhetoric, and logic}, he did write many treatises explaining the principles of rhetoric, grammar, and logic. During the Middle Ages, his works of these disciplines were commonly used when studying the three elementary arts. The historian R. W. Southern called Boethius "the schoolmaster of medieval Europe." An 1872 German translation of "De Musica" was the magnum opus of Oscar Paul. Opuscula sacra. Boethius also wrote Christian theological treatises, which supported Catholicism and condemned Arianism and other heterodox forms of Christianity. Five theological works are known: # De Trinitate – "The Trinity", where he defends the Council of Chalcedon Trinitarian position, that God is in three persons who have no differences in nature. He argues against the Arian view of the nature of God {God the Father is a deity and is divine and the Son of God is not a deity but divine}, which put him at odds with the faith of the Arian King of Italy. # Utrum Pater et filius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur – "Whether Father, Son and Holy Spirit are Substantially Predicated of the Divinity," a short work where he uses reason and Aristotelian epistemology to argue that the Catholic views of the nature of God are correct. # Quomodo substantiae # De fide catholica – "On the Catholic Faith" # Contra Eutychen et Nestorium – "Against Eutyches {anti-Nestorian; denounced as a heretic himself} and Nestorius," from around 513, which dates it as the earliest of his theological works. Eutyches {human nature and divine nature were combined into the single nature of Christ without any alteration, absorption or confusion: that of the incarnate Word; denying that Christ was "consubstantial with us men" (unique)} and Nestorius {prosopic union; two natures (divine and human); denies full hypostatic union; one prosopon is produced by the Logos giving his own countenance to the assured man; prosopic union: prosopon is the "appearance" of the ousia (essence)} were contemporaries from the early to mid-5th century who held divergent Christological theologies. Boethius argues for a middle ground in conformity with Roman Catholic faith. His theological works played an important part during the Middle Ages in philosophical thought, including the fields of logic, ontology, and metaphysics. History of reception. Lorenzo Valla described Boethius as the last of the Romans and the first of the scholastic philosophers. Despite the use of his mathematical texts in the early universities, it is his final work, the Consolation of Philosophy, that assured his legacy in the Middle Ages and beyond. This work is cast as a dialogue between Boethius himself, at first bitter and despairing over his imprisonment, and the spirit of philosophy, depicted as a woman of wisdom and compassion. "Alternately composed in prose and verse, the Consolation teaches acceptance of hardship in a spirit of philosophical detachment from misfortune". Parts of the work are reminiscent of the Socratic method of Plato's dialogues, as the spirit of philosophy questions Boethius and challenges his emotional reactions to adversity. .. it has been one of the most influential books in European culture. .. "The Boethian Wheel" is a model for Boethius' belief that history is a wheel, a metaphor that Boethius uses frequently in the Consolation; it remained very popular throughout the Middle Ages, and is still often seen today. As the wheel turns, those who have power and wealth will turn to dust; men may rise from poverty and hunger to greatness, while those who are great may fall with the turn of the wheel. It was represented in the Middle Ages in many relics of art depicting the rise and fall of man. Descriptions of "The Boethian Wheel" can be found in the literature of the Middle Ages from the Romance of the Rose to Chaucer. De topicis differentiis was the basis for one of the first works of logic in a western European vernacular, a selection of excerpts translated into Old French by John of Antioch in 1282. // The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by Boethius through his logical and theological essays. (Scholasticism) // {ed. Dov M. Gabbay, John Woods - Mediaeval and Renaissance Logic}

* Topical logic. Topical logic is the logic of topical argument, a branch of rhetoric developed in the Late Antique period from earlier works, such as Aristotle's Topics and Cicero's Topica. It consists of heuristics for developing arguments, which are in the first place plausible rather than rigorous, from commonplaces (topoi or loci). In other words, therefore, it consists of standardized ways of thinking up debating techniques from existing, thought-through positions. The actual practice of topical argument was much developed by Roman lawyers. Cicero took the theory of Aristotle to be an aspect of rhetoric. As such it belongs to inventio in the classic fivefold division of rhetoric. The standard classical work on topical logic was the De Topicis Differentiis (On Topical Differentiae) by Boethius. Differentiae refer to case analysis, being the differentiations used to distinguish the cases into which a question is divided. Besides Aristotle and Cicero, Boethius built on Themistius. In terminology, the Greek axioma and topos in Boethius became the Latin maxima propositio (maxim, universal truth) and locus. In the Middle Ages topical logic became a theory of inference, for which the name "axiomatic topics" has been suggested. Abelard wanted to complete a theory of entailment by invoking the loci in Boethius to fill in conditionals, a flawed if bold development. Peter of Spain, in his De locis, developed the ideas of Boethius. The De inventione dialectica of Rodolphus Agricola (1479) made large claims for this method, as an aspect of dialectic (traditionally contrasted with rhetoric) subordinated to inventio. The precise relationship of "dialectic" and "rhetoric" remained vexed well into the sixteenth century, hinging on the role assigned to loci. It was expounded in different fashions by Philipp Melanchthon and Petrus Ramus. The debate fed into the later development of Ramism.

* Medieval philosophy [Средневековая философия]. Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance in the 15th century. Medieval philosophy, understood as a project of independent philosophical inquiry, began in Baghdad, in the middle of the 8th century, and in France, in the itinerant court of Charlemagne, in the last quarter of the 8th century. It is defined partly by the process of rediscovering the ancient culture developed in Greece and Rome during the Classical period, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate sacred doctrine with secular learning. The history of medieval philosophy is traditionally divided into two main periods: the period in the Latin West following the Early Middle Ages until the 12th century, when the works of Aristotle and Plato were rediscovered, translated, and studied upon, and the "golden age" of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries in the Latin West, which witnessed the culmination of the recovery of ancient philosophy, along with the reception of its Arabic commentators, and significant developments in the fields of philosophy of religion, logic, and metaphysics. The Medieval Era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance humanists, who saw it as a barbaric "middle period" between the Classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the rebirth or renaissance of Classical culture. Modern historians consider the medieval era to be one of philosophical development, heavily influenced by Christian theology. One of the most notable thinkers of the era, Thomas of Aquinas, never considered himself a philosopher, and criticized philosophers for always "falling short of the true and proper wisdom". The problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and simplicity of God, the purpose of theology and metaphysics, and the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. Characteristics. Medieval philosophy places heavy emphasis on the theological. With the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan {!!} writers such as Plato and Aristotle. However, their theology used the methods and logical techniques of the ancient philosophers to address difficult theological questions and points of doctrine. Thomas Aquinas, following Peter Damian, argued that philosophy is the handmaiden of theology (ancilla theologiae). Despite this view of philosophy as the servant of theology, this did not prevent the medievals from developing original and innovative philosophies against the backdrop of their theological projects. For instance, such thinkers as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas of Aquinas made monumental breakthroughs in the philosophy of temporality and metaphysics, respectively. The principles that underlie all the medieval philosophers' work are: # The use of logic, dialectic, and analysis to discover the truth, known as ratio; # Respect for the insights of ancient philosophers, in particular Aristotle, and deference to their authority (auctoritas); # The obligation to co-ordinate the insights of philosophy with theological teaching and revelation (concordia). One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason. Avicenna and Averroes both leaned more on the side of reason. Augustine stated that he would never allow his philosophical investigations to go beyond the authority of God. Anselm attempted to defend against what he saw as partly an assault on faith, with an approach allowing for both faith and reason. The Augustinian solution to the faith/reason problem is to (1) believe, and then (2) seek to understand (fides quaerens intellectum). History. Early medieval Christian philosophy. The boundaries of the early medieval period are a matter of controversy. It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354–430)[citation needed] who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period. After the collapse of the Roman empire, Western Europe lapsed into the so-called Dark Ages. Monasteries were among the limited number of focal points of formal academic learning, which might be presumed to be a result of a rule of St Benedict's in 525, which required monks to read the Bible daily, and his suggestion that at the beginning of Lent, a book be given to each monk. In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen. Early Christian thought, in particular in the patristic period, tends to be intuitional and mystical, and is less reliant on reason and logical argument. It also places more emphasis on the sometimes-mystical doctrines of Plato, and less upon the systematic thinking of Aristotle. Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period. Scholars relied on translations by Boethius into Latin of Aristotle's Categories, the logical work On Interpretation, and his Latin translation of Porphyry's Isagoge, a commentary on Aristotle's Categories. Two Roman philosophers had a great influence on the development of medieval philosophy: Augustine and Boethius. Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers. He is primarily a theologian and a devotional writer, but much of his writing is philosophical. His themes are truth, God, the human soul, the meaning of history, the state, sin, and salvation. For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority. Some of his writing had an influence on the development of early modern philosophy, such as that of Descartes. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480 c.–524) was a Christian philosopher born in Rome to an ancient and influential family. He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. His influence on the early medieval period was also marked (so much so that it is sometimes called the Boethian period). He intended to translate all the works of Aristotle and Plato from the original Greek into Latin, and translated many of Aristotle's logical works, such as On Interpretation, and the Categories. He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories). This introduced the problem of universals to the medieval world. The first significant renewal of learning in the West came when Charlemagne, advised by Candidus, Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, and by imperial decree in 787 AD established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name Scholasticism is derived, became centres of medieval learning. Johannes Scotus Eriugena (c. 815 – 877), successor of Alcuin of York as head of the Palace School, was an Irish theologian and Neoplatonic philosopher. He is notable for having translated and made commentaries upon the work of Pseudo-Dionysius {Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (V-VI); mystical teaching, strong Neoplatonic influence; negative theology: God is better characterized and approached by negations than by affirmations; "divine silence, darkness, and unknowing"; concept of Godhead (or godhood): the divinity or substance (ousia) of the Christian God, the substantial impersonal being of God, as opposed to the individual persons or hypostases of the Trinity; in other words, the Godhead refers to the "what" of God, and God refers to the "who" of God. There is a distinct difference between Neoplatonism and that of Eastern Christianity. In the former, all life returns to the source to be stripped of individual identity, a process called henosis, while in orthodox Christianity the Likeness of God in man is restored by grace (by being united to God the Trinity through participation in His divine energies), a process called theosis.}, initially thought to be from the apostolic age. Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation. Eriugena was called in to settle this dispute. At the same time, Paschasius Radbertus raised an important question about the real presence of Christ at the Eucharist. Is the host the same as Christ's historical body? How can it be present at many places and many times? Radbertus argued that Christ's real body is present, veiled by the appearance of bread and wine, and is present at all places and all times, by means of God's incomprehensible power. This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship. At Fleury, Theodulphus, bishop of Orléans, established a school for young noblemen recommended there by Charlemagne. By the mid-ninth century, its library was one of the most comprehensive ever assembled in the West, and scholars such as Lupus of Ferrières (d. 862) traveled there to consult its texts. Later, under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age. Remigius of Auxerre, at the beginning of the tenth century, produced glosses or commentaries on the classical texts of Donatus, Priscian, Boethius, and Martianus Capella. The Carolingian period was followed by a small dark age that was followed by a lasting revival of learning in the eleventh century, which owed much to the rediscovery of Greek thought from Arabic translations and Muslim contributions such as Avicenna's On the soul. High Middle Ages. The period from the middle of the eleventh century to the middle of the fourteenth century is known as the 'High medieval' or 'scholastic' period. It is generally agreed to begin with Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) {an Italian Benedictine monk, abbot, philosopher and theologian of the Catholic Church, who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109} an Italian philosopher, theologian, and church official who is famous as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God. The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally regarded as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath travelled to Sicily and the Arab world, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped in forming a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, and in particular of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions they had previously relied on, which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy. His work formed the basis of the major commentaries that followed. The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a {patristic ??} traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can discover truth only when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan writers were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol, and William of Ockham. By contrast, the Dominican order, founded by St Dominic in 1215 placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East, and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator Averroes. At the start of the 20th century, historian and philosopher Martin Grabmann was the first scholar to work out the outlines of the ongoing development of thought in scholasticism and to see in Thomas Aquinas a response and development of thought rather than a single, coherently emerged and organic whole. Although Grabmann's works in German are numerous, only Thomas Aquinas (1928) is available in English. However, Grabmann's thought was instrumental in the whole modern understanding of scholasticism and the pivotal role of Aquinas. Topics. All the main branches of philosophy today were a part of Medieval philosophy. Medieval philosophy also included most of the areas originally established by the pagan philosophers of antiquity, in particular Aristotle. However, the discipline now called Philosophy of religion was, it is presumed, a unique development of the Medieval era, and many of the problems that define the subject first took shape in the Middle Ages, in forms that are still recognisable today. Theology. Medieval philosophy is characteristically theological. Subjects discussed in this period include: # The problem of the compatibility of the divine attributes: How are the attributes traditionally ascribed to the Supreme Being, such as unlimited power, knowledge of all things, infinite goodness, existence outside time, immateriality, and so on, logically consistent with one another? # The problem of evil: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period. # The problem of free will: A similar problem was to explain how 'divine foreknowledge' – God's knowledge of what will happen in the future – is compatible with our belief in our own free will. # Questions regarding the immortality of the intellect {Greek philosophy}, the unity or non-unity between the soul and the intellect, and the consequent intellectual basis for believing in the immortality of the soul. # The question of whether there can be substances which are non-material, for example, angels. Metaphysics. After the 'rediscovery' of Aristotle's Metaphysics in the mid-twelfth century, many scholastics wrote commentaries on this work (in particular Aquinas and Scotus). The problem of universals was one of the main problems engaged during that period. Other subjects included: # Hylomorphism – development of the Aristotelian doctrine that individual things are a compound of material and form (the statue is a compound of granite, and the form sculpted into it) # Existence – being qua being # Causality – Discussion of causality consisted mostly of commentaries on Aristotle, mainly the Physics, On the Heavens, On Generation and Corruption. The approach to this subject area was uniquely medieval, the rational investigation of the universe being viewed as a way of approaching God. Duns Scotus' proof of the existence of God is based on the notion of causality. # Individuation. The problem of individuation is to explain how we individuate or numerically distinguish the members of any kind for which it is given. The problem arose when it was required to explain how individual angels of the same species differ from one another. Angels are immaterial, and their numerical difference cannot be explained by the different matter they are made of. The main contributors to this discussion were Aquinas and Scotus. Natural philosophy. In natural philosophy and the philosophy of science, medieval philosophers were mainly influenced by Aristotle. However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period. The more mathematical reasoning techniques of William Heytesbury and William of Ockham are indicative of this trend. Other contributors to natural philosophy are Albert of Saxony, John Buridan, and Nicholas of Autrecourt. See also the article on the Continuity thesis, the hypothesis that there was no radical discontinuity between the intellectual development of the Middle Ages and the developments in the Renaissance and early modern period. Logic. The great historian of logic I. M. Bochenski regarded the Middle Ages as one of the three great periods in the history of logic. From the time of Abelard until the middle of the fourteenth century, scholastic writers refined and developed Aristotelian logic to a remarkable degree. In the earlier period, writers such as Peter Abelard wrote commentaries on the works of the Old logic (Aristotle's Categories, On interpretation, and the Isagoge of Porphyry). Later, new departments of logical enquiry arose, and new logical and semantic notions were developed. For logical developments in the Middle Ages, see the articles on insolubilia, obligations, properties of terms, syllogism, and sophismata. Other great contributors to medieval logic include Albert of Saxony, John Buridan, John Wyclif, Paul of Venice, Peter of Spain, Richard Kilvington, Walter Burley, William Heytesbury, and William of Ockham. Philosophy of mind. Medieval philosophy of mind is based on Aristotle's De Anima, another work discovered in the Latin West in the twelfth century. It was regarded as a branch of the philosophy of nature. Some of the topics discussed in this area include: # Divine illumination – The doctrine of Divine illumination was an alternative to naturalism. It holds that humans need a special assistance from God in their ordinary thinking. The doctrine is most closely associated with Augustine and his scholastic followers. It reappeared in a different form in the early modern era. # theories of demonstration # mental representation – The idea that mental states have 'intentionality'; i.e., despite being a state of the mind, they are able to represent things outside the mind is intrinsic to the modern philosophy of mind. It has its origins in medieval philosophy. (The word 'intentionality' was revived by Franz Brentano, who was intending to reflect medieval usage). Ockham is well known for his theory that language signifies mental states primarily by convention, real things secondarily, whereas the corresponding mental states signify real things of themselves and necessarily. Writers in this area include Saint Augustine, Duns Scotus, Nicholas of Autrecourt, Thomas Aquinas, and William of Ockham. Ethics. Writers in this area include Anselm, Augustine, Peter Abelard, Scotus, Peter of Spain, Aquinas, and Ockham. Writers on political theory include Dante, John Wyclif, and William of Ockham.[citation needed]

* Immortality of soul and intellect. The issue of the immortality of the soul involves several disciplinary fields, including natural philosophy (psychology as a part of natural science), theology (afterlife), and ethics (individual responsibility of human actors). Although different and contradictory answers have been given to this question in the Western tradition, four doctrinal strands can be traced. First, materialists affirm that man, inasmuch as his body is an organized aggregate of purely material elements, disappears completely when the elements that compose him are dissolved. This is the answer of some Presocratics, Epicurus, the Stoics, and, in the early moden period, Thomas Hobbes, who reduced mental acts to organic functions or to epiphenomena of matter. Second, for Plato, the soul is a substance in itself that exists prior to being joined to the body, which it moves. It dwells in the body for a certain time but departs at death to take up residence in other bodies {reincarnation}, until, thoroughly purified, it is able to return to the world of the ideas {enlightenment}. Some of Plato’s later followers viewed the human soul as a particular expression of the cosmic Soul, or as a particle of the World Soul. These authors admit the immortality of the soul, but this immortality is not seen as specifically personal. The substantiality of the soul and its separability of the body were also emphasized by fifteenth- and sixteenth century Neoplatonics, and then by Descartes and his followers. Third, Aristotle defined the soul as the first act of an organic body, but he also made a distinction between an intellect that makes everything {Active intellect} and one that becomes everything {Passive intellect}, suggesting that only the former was “separate” and “eternal.” As is well known, his wordings triggered a host of, often divergent, interpretations (see the next section). Finally, the Christian tradition affirms, with few exceptions, the personal immortality of the human soul. Some of the early Fathers, including Justin Martyr and Arnobius, rejected the doctrine of natural immortality and made it contingent upon God’s grace, but the majority of the later Fathers viewed immortality as rationally provable. For example, Augustine demonstrated the immortality of the soul by showing that it possesses truth. Truth is immortal, because it can never be untrue; therefore the soul, in which truth dwells, cannot die. From Augustine, through the Middle Ages, and until the rise of early modern Aristotelian philosophy, the doctrine of the immortality of the soul was more or less taken for granted and only rarely challenged. As a rule, immortality was defended with theological (afterlife, resurrection), ontological (substantialty of the soul), and ethical (dignity of man, morality) arguments. At the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, this situation changed radically. In 1492, the Bishop of Padua issued an edict against discussion on the unity of the intellect. This disciplinary event had surprising consequences, as it pushed the Paduan Aristotelians Nicoletto Vernia (d. 1499) and Agostino Nifo (c. 1469–1538) to a remarkable shift in their thought. Initially, they were defenders of Averroes’s theory of the unity of the intellect, but, from loyal followers of Averroes as a guide to Aristotle, they became careful students of the Greek commentators and, in their late thought, both Vernia and Nifo attacked Averroes as a misleading interpreter of Aristotle, believing that personal immortality could be philosophically demonstrated. Then, in 1513, at the Fifth Lateran Council, the papal bull Apostolici regiminis was issued that decreed that the immortality of the soul could and should be proved philosophically; this bull therefore obliged all philosophers to produce the appropriate demonstrations. (...) The immortality of the intellect is based on the following arguments: (1.) the intellect receives the forms of material beings and, by consequence, it is immaterial; (2.) the intellect has intrinsic intelligibility; (3.) man would be deprived of abstract knowledge; and (4.) there is the possibility of intellectual beatitude. Jacopo Zabarella argued that, in Aristotle’s view, the soul, including the possible intellect, cannot survive the death of the body. He thus endorsed the Alexandrist interpretation of Aristotelian psychology: Every “forma dans esse corpori” is material and not separable; soul is “subjectively” (as form) and “objectively” (as to its objects) bound to the body. Leen Spruit - THE POMPONAZZI AFFAIR The Controversy over the Immortality of the Soul

* Medieval philosophers [Средневековые философы]. Augustine of Hippo (354-430), Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (V-VI), Boethius (~477-524; Roman), Johannes Scotus Eriugena (~800-877), Avicenna (~980-1037; Persian), Lanfranc of Canterbury (1005..10-1089), Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), Peter Lombard (~1096-1160), Peter Abelard (~1079-1142), Averroes (1126-1198; Andalusian), Alexander of Hales (~1185-1245), Albertus Magnus (~1200-1280), William of Moerbeke (1215..35-~1286), Bonaventure (1221-1274), Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274), John Duns Scotus (~1265/66-1308; Scotism), Durandus of Saint-Pourçain (~1275-1332/34), Petrus Aureolus (~1280-1322; Peter Auriol; nominalist), William of Ockham (~1287-1347), John Buridan (~1301-1359/62), William of Heytesbury (~1313-1372/1373), Albert of Saxony (~1320-1390), Nicholas of Autrecourt (~1299-1369).

* Scholasticism [Схоластика] (XII-XVII). Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical method of philosophical analysis predicated upon a Latin Catholic theistic curriculum which dominated teaching in the medieval universities in Europe from about 1100 to 1700. It originated within the Christian monastic schools that were the basis of the earliest European universities. The rise of scholasticism was closely associated with these schools that flourished in Italy, France, Spain and England. Scholasticism is not so much a philosophy or a theology as a method of learning, as it places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve contradictions. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit disputation; a topic drawn from the tradition is broached {raised} in the form of a question, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study. As a program, scholasticism began as an attempt at harmonization on the part of medieval Christian thinkers, to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antiquity philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but also of Neoplatonism. (See also Christian apologetics {a branch of Christian theology that defends Christianity against objections}.) Some of the main figures of scholasticism include Anselm of Canterbury (“the father of scholasticism"), Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's masterwork Summa Theologica (1265–1274) is considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy; it began while Aquinas was regent master at the studium provinciale of Santa Sabina in Rome, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina, and also among Lutheran and Reformed thinkers. The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by Boethius through his logical and theological essays, and later forerunners (and then companions) to scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, literally "science of discourse", and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam. Early Scholasticism. The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages. Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland. By decree in AD 787, he established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centers of medieval learning. During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was widely dispersed in the monastic schools.[not specific enough to verify] Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning. Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815–877), one of the founders of scholasticism. Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality. He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers and the Greek theological tradition. The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars Peter Abelard, Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury. This period saw the beginning of the 'rediscovery' of many Greek works {XI} which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the latter half of that century, began transmitting them to the rest of Europe. After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, and as these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements into Latin. At the same time, Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic (the middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. High Scholasticism. The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied. Edward Grant writes "Not only was the structure of the Arabic language radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Word-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek, permitted literal, but intelligible, word-for-word translations." Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan scholastics were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham. By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded by St Dominic in 1215, to propagate and defend Christian doctrine, placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator, Averroes. (...) Thomistic Scholasticism. As J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, within the Dominican Order Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology." Thomistic scholasticism or scholastic Thomism identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary thought. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, Scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called, according to philosophers like Edward Feser, "Strict Observance Thomism". (...) Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the actus essendi or act of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. (...) Scholastic method. Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively so that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (modus inveniendi) {of the author in question (??)}. The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways. The first was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements. The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic – as they were known at the time – to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader. Scholastic instruction. Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the meditatio (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the quaestio students could ask questions (quaestiones) that might have occurred to them during meditatio. Eventually the discussion of questiones became a method of inquiry apart from the lectio and independent of authoritative texts. Disputationes were arranged to resolve controversial quaestiones. Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – disputationes de quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals. The quaestio method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (sic) or denied (non). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.

* Renaissance humanism [Ренессансный гуманизм] (XIV-XVI). Renaissance humanism was a revival in the study of classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. During the period, the term humanist (Italian: umanista) referred to teachers and students of the studia humanitatis—meaning the humanities including grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. It was not until the 19th century that this began to be called humanism instead of the original humanities, and later by the retronym Renaissance humanism to distinguish it from later humanist developments. During the Renaissance period most humanists were religious, so their concern was to "purify and renew Christianity", not to do away with it. Their vision was to return ad fontes ("to the sources") to the simplicity of the New Testament, bypassing the complexities of medieval theology. Today, by contrast, the term humanism has come to signify "a worldview which denies the existence or relevance of God, or which is committed to a purely secular outlook". Renaissance humanism was a response to what came to be depicted by later whig historians as the "narrow pedantry" associated with medieval scholasticism. Humanists sought to create a citizenry able to speak and write with eloquence {educated} and clarity and thus capable of engaging in the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. Humanism, whilst set up by a small elite who had access to books and education, was intended as a cultural mode to influence all of society {"moral dissipation"}. It was a program to revive the cultural legacy, literary legacy, and moral philosophy of classical antiquity. There were important centres of humanism in Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Genoa, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.

* Ideology of the Enlightenment. Напротив, трактовка Возрождения как этакой «утренней зари», взошедшей после «долгой» и «страшной» «ночи» удобно вписывалась как в идейный контекст Просвещения XVIII в., так и в прогрессистско-позитивистский настрой XIX в., одинаково обративших ренессансно-гуманисти-ческие идеалы на пользу либеральной идеологии Нового времени. Явная предвзятость не помешала такому подходу стать своеобразной мировоззренческой матрицей, не допускавшей каких-либо отклонений в своем толковании и до недавнего времени почти единодушно принимавшейся большинством исследователей. Ее ущербность по настоящему начала осознаваться только сейчас, на фоне общего кризиса человеческой личности, духовности и культуры. Иванов Сергей Геннадьевич - О сущностном понимании Ренессанса

* Русская идея [Russian Idea] (XVI). Русская идея — совокупность понятий, выражающих историческое своеобразие и особое призвание русского народа. Особую актуальность русская идея приобрела после краха СССР и последовавшего за ним духовного вакуума. Русский философ А. В. Гулыга писал, в 2003 г.: «Сегодня русская идея прежде всего звучит как призыв к национальному возрождению и сохранению материального и духовного возрождения России. Русская идея актуальна сегодня как никогда, ведь человечество (а не только Россия) подошло к краю бездны. <…> Русская идея — это составная общечеловеческой христианской идеи, изложенная в терминах современной диалектики». История. Предполагается, что русская идея сформировалась в XVI веке и выразилась в идее православной монархии (идея инока Филофея Москва — Третий Рим). При этом исток русской идеи полагается в еврейском мессианизме. Вопрос о своеобразии России и призвании русского народа впервые поставил Пётр Чаадаев, однако позитивного ответа он так и не дал. Свои версии ответа Чаадаеву предложили славянофилы (критика вестернизации и апология православия). Непосредственно сам термин «русская идея» введён Ф. М. Достоевским в 1860 году, который стал известен за рубежом после чтения доклада В. С. Соловьёва «Русская идея» в Париже в 1888 году. Русский философ А. В. Гулыга писал: «Русская идея Достоевского — это воплощенная в патриотическую форму концепция всеобщей нравственности». Термин широко использовался такими русскими философами как Е. Н. Трубецкой, В. В. Розанов, Вяч. Иванов, С. Л. Франк, Г. П. Федотов, Л. П. Карсавин. Наиболее корректно понятие «русская идея» определено в концепциях философов и мыслителей конца XIX — начала XX веков Н. А. Бердяева, В. С. Соловьева, И. А. Ильина, Н. Я. Данилевского, а также современных исследователей В. О. Авченко, В. В. Аксючица, А. В. Гулыги, А. И. Солженицына, С. И. Сухоноса. Их работы акцентируют внимание на важности этого понятия, на его «цементирующем» для русского народа свойстве. Собственный взгляд на русскую идею определял современный российский писатель В. О. Пелевин, что наиболее полно выражено в романе Generation «П». По мысли сторонников, русская идея выражает «замысел Божий о России», то есть сакральную и, часто, эсхатологическую миссию русского народа и российского государства. Русская идея содержит представление о русском народе как богоносце. Этим подчёркивается вселенский характер русской идеи, её соборность и универсализм. Приверженцы русской идеи представляют что Россия имеет глобальное значение и важна для всеобщего христианского спасения. Критика. Геополитический аспект. Некоторые исследователи (А. Л. Янов, 1988) полагают, что за русской идеей скрываются геополитические амбиции, а также идеология российского великодержавного шовинизма и империализма. Оппонируя схожим точкам зрения А. Л. Янова и статьи журнала «Коммунист» А. В. Гулыга писал, что не стоит удивляться совпадению взглядов антикоммуниста и посткоммуниста, так как «в том и другом случае перед нами стремление скомпрометировать духовную историю России». Взаимоотношения государства и общества. Существует мнение, что основное противоречие «русской идеи» с Западом лежит в области отношений общества и государства. Если на Западе исторически возобладал принцип «государство для людей, а не люди для государства», то «русская идея» предполагает подчинение общества бюрократии, использующей государство в своих собственных корыстных интересах. Наблюдатели отмечают, что сакральный статус государства был характерен как для советского, так и для имперского периода российской истории. Russian Idea. The Russian Idea is a set of concepts expressing the historical uniqueness, special vocation and global purpose of the Russian people and, by extension, of the Russian state. The Russian Idea acquired a distinct relevance after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the spiritual vacuum that followed the event. [E259]

* François Marie Charles Fourier [Франсуа Мари Шарль Фурье] (1772-1837; philosopher, utopian socialism) was a French philosopher, an influential early socialist thinker and one of the founders of utopian socialism. Some of Fourier's social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society. Fourier was also a supporter of women's rights in a time period when influences like Jean-Jacques Rousseau were prevalent. Fourier believed that all important jobs should be open to women on the basis of skill and aptitude rather than closed on account of gender. He spoke of women as individuals, not as half the human couple. Fourier saw that "traditional" marriage could potentially hurt woman's rights as human beings and thus never married. Writing before the advent of the term 'homosexuality', Fourier held that both men and women have a wide range of sexual needs and preferences which may change throughout their lives, including same-sex sexuality and androgénité. He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused, and that "affirming one's difference" can actually enhance social integration. Fourier's concern was to liberate every human individual, man, woman, and child, in two senses: education and the liberation of human passion. [E27]

* Сенсимонизм [Saint-Simonianism] (early XIX). Сенсимонизм — течение социального утопизма, основанное графом Анри де Сен-Симоном. Догматизация учения привела к тому, что достаточно быстро сенсимонисты фактически создали узкую религиозную секту. Saint-Simonianism was a French political, religious and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon. Saint-Simon's ideas, expressed largely through a succession of journals such as l'Industrie (1816), La politique (1818) and L'Organisateur (1819–20) focused on the perception that growth in industrialization and scientific discovery would have profound changes on society. He believed that society would restructure itself by abandoning traditional ideas of temporal and spiritual power, an evolution that would lead, inevitably, to a productive society based on and benefiting from, a " ... union of men engaged in useful work"; the basis of "true equality". The movement after Saint-Simon's death. Following Saint-Simon's death in 1825, his followers began to differ as to how to promulgate his ideas. A 'charismatic' faction, led by Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin, purchased the newspaper Le Globe as their official organ, and formed an increasingly religiously-minded ritualistic group based on a community founded at Ménilmontant, before being banned by the authorities in 1832. Following this some of Enfantin's followers visited Constantinople and then Egypt and influenced the creation of the Suez Canal in search of Messianic revelations, and the formal Saint-Simonian movement expired. However, others who had been associated with the group and were not followers of Enfantin, (such as Olinde Rodrigues and Gustave d'Eichthal) developed Saint-Simonian notions practically and involved themselves in the development of the French economy, founding a number of leading concerns including the Suez Canal Company and the bank Crédit Mobilier. It has also been noted that Saint-Simonian ideas exerted a significant influence on new religious movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism since the 1850s. [E153]

* Панславизм [Pan-Slavism] (XVIII/XIX). Панслави́зм — идеология, сформировавшаяся в странах, населённых славянскими народами, в основе которой лежат идеи о необходимости славянского национального политического объединения на основе этнической, культурной и языковой общности. Сформировалась в среде славянских народов в конце XVIII — первой половине XIX веков. В конце XIX века на основе панславистского движения сформировалось движение неославистов, которое ставило перед собой аналогичные задачи, но требовало равенства славянских народов между собой и освобождения от русского лидерства в деле освобождения славянских государств и объединения народов. Pan-Slavism. Pan-Slavism, a movement which crystallized in the mid-19th century, is the political ideology concerned with the advancement of integrity and unity for the Slavic peoples. Its main impact occurred in the Balkans, where non-Slavic empires had ruled the South Slavs for centuries. These were mainly the Byzantine Empire, Austria-Hungary (both as separate entities for most of the period), the Ottoman Empire, and Venice. Extensive pan-Slavism began much like Pan-Germanism, both of which grew from the sense of unity and nationalism experienced within ethnic groups after the French Revolution and the consequent Napoleonic Wars against European monarchies. Like other Romantic nationalist movements, Slavic intellectuals and scholars in the developing fields of history, philology, and folklore actively encouraged the passion of their shared identity and ancestry. Pan-Slavism also co-existed with the Southern Slavic independence. The First Pan-Slav congress was held in Prague, Bohemia in June, 1848, during the revolutionary movement of 1848 {a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history.}. [E96]

* Общество любомудрия [Lyubomudry] (1823-25). Óбщество любому́дрия — литературно-философский кружок, собиравшийся в Москве в 1823—1825 годах. Его участниками были Владимир Одоевский (председатель), Дмитрий Веневитинов (секретарь), И. В. Киреевский, Н. М. Рожалин, А. И. Кошелёв, В. П. Титов, С. П. Шевырёв, Н. А. Мельгунов. Иногда заседания посещали некоторые другие московские литераторы. Участники кружка интересовались немецкой идеалистической философией, изучали работы Ф. В. Шеллинга, а также Б. Спинозы, И. Канта, И. Г. Фихте, немецких натурфилософов. Члены общества называли себя «любомудрами». Lyubomudry. Lyubomudry (Russian: любомудры) were the members of the secret circle "Society of Lyubomudriye" (Общество любомудрия) which existed in Russia in 1823-1825. Lyubomudriye was the Slavophile replacement term for "philosophy", i.e., the formal translations would be "Philosophers" and "The Society of Philosophy", respectively. The circle was interested in philosophy, aesthetics and literature. The members were of different political preferences, ranging from Decembrists to conservatives. The circle was disbanded after the suppression of the Decembrist revolt and its papers were burned.

* Славянофильство [Slavophilia] (1830s/40s). Славянофи́льство — литературно и религиозно-философское течение русской общественной и философской мысли, оформившееся в 30-х—40-х годах XIX века и ориентированное на выявление самобытности России, её типовых отличий от Запада. Представители ( т.е. славянофилы) выступали за развитие особого русского пути, отличного от западноевропейского. Развиваясь по нему, по их мнению, Россия способна донести православную истину до впавших в ересь и атеизм европейских народов. Славянофилы утверждали также о существовании особого типа культуры, возникшего на духовной почве православия, а также отвергали тезис представителей западничества о том, что Пётр I возвратил Россию в лоно европейских стран, и она должна пройти этот путь в политическом, экономическом и культурном развитии. Slavophilia. Slavophilia (Russian: Славянофильство) was an intellectual movement originating from the 19th century that wanted the Russian Empire to be developed upon values and institutions derived from its early history. Slavophiles opposed the influences of Western Europe in Russia. Depending on the historical context, its opposite could be termed Slavophobia, a fear of Slavic culture, or also what some Russian intellectuals called zapadnichestvo (westernism). The movement originated in Moscow in the 1830s. Drawing on the works of Greek Church Fathers, the philosopher Aleksey Khomyakov (1804–60) and his devoutly Orthodox colleagues elaborated a traditionalistic doctrine that claimed Russia has its own distinct way, which should avoid imitating "Western" institutions. The Russian Slavophiles criticised the modernisation of Peter the Great and Catherine the Great, and some of them even adopted traditional pre-Petrine dress. Most Slavophiles were liberals and ardently supported the emancipation of serfs, which was finally realized in the emancipation reform of 1861. Press censorship, serfdom and capital punishment were viewed as baneful influences of Western Europe. Their political ideal was a parliamentary monarchy, as represented by the medieval Zemsky Sobors. Later writers Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Konstantin Leontyev, and Nikolay Danilevsky developed a peculiar conservative version of Slavophilism, Pochvennichestvo (from the Russian word for soil). The teaching, as articulated by Konstantin Pobedonostsev (Ober-Procurator of the Russian Orthodox Church), was adopted as the official tsarist ideology during the reigns of Alexander III and Nicholas II.

* Петрашевцы [Petrashevsky Circle] (1840s). Петраше́вцы — осуждённые в 1849 году участники встреч у Михаила Буташевича-Петрашевского. Будучи все в той или иной мере «вольнодумцами», петрашевцы были неоднородны по своим взглядам. Немногие имели замыслы прямо революционного характера, некоторые занимались изучением и пропагандой социально-утопической мысли XIX века (современники часто называли петрашевцев «коммунистами»). Значительная часть осуждённых понесла наказание только за распространение письма Белинского к Гоголю или за недоносительство о собраниях. Кружок Петрашевского вошёл в историю в том числе и из-за участия в нём молодого Достоевского и из-за необычного, поразившего современников, обряда инсценировки приготовлений к публичной казни, которому подверглись осуждённые, не знавшие о том, что они помилованы. Кружок Петрашевского посредством некоторых своих членов (главным образом Дурова) стоял в тесной связи со множеством других, где рассуждали совершенно в том же духе о притеснениях цензуры, о безобразии крепостного права, о продажности чиновничества, где со страстным интересом читались и комментировались теории Кабе, Фурье, Прудона и, наконец, с восторгом слушалось письмо Белинского к Гоголю. Petrashevsky Circle. The Petrashevsky Circle was a Russian literary discussion group of progressive-minded intellectuals in St. Petersburg in the 1840s. It was organized by Mikhail Petrashevsky, a follower of the French utopian socialist Charles Fourier. Among the members were writers, teachers, students, minor government officials and army officers. While differing in political views, most of them were opponents of the tsarist autocracy and Russian serfdom. Like that of the Lyubomudry group founded earlier in the century, the purpose of the circle was to discuss Western philosophy and literature that was officially banned by the Imperial government of Tsar Nicholas I. Among those connected to the circle were the writers Dostoevsky and Saltykov-Shchedrin, and the poets Aleksey Pleshcheyev, Apollon Maikov, and Taras Shevchenko. Nicholas I, alarmed at the prospect of the revolutions of 1848 spreading to Russia, saw great danger in organisations like the Petrashevsky Circle. In 1849, members of the Circle were arrested and imprisoned. A large group of prisoners, Dostoevsky among them, were sent to Semyonov Place for execution. As they stood in the square waiting to be shot, a messenger interrupted the proceedings with notice of a reprieve. As part of a pre-planned intentional deception, the Tsar had prepared a letter to general-adjutant Sumarokov, commuting the death sentences to incarceration. Some of the prisoners were sent to Siberia, others to prisons. Dostoevsky's eight-year sentence was later reduced to four years by Nicholas I.

* Александра Герцен - Кто виноват? [роман] (1846). «Кто виноват?» — роман в двух частях Александра Ивановича Герцена 1846 года. Согласно Большой советской энциклопедии, «один из первых русских социально-психологических романов».

* Почвенничество [Pochvennichestvo] (1860-х). По́чвенничество (от рус. народная почва) — литературное течение и направление общественной и философской мысли в России 1860-х годов. Основы мировоззрения восходят к идеям и концепциям так называемой «молодой редакции» журнала «Москвитянин» (1850—1856) во главе с Аполлоном Григорьевым. Приверженцы называются почвенниками. Литературовед В. Н. Захаров указывает, что термин «почвенничество» является поздним — Достоевский и его единомышленники не называли себя почвенниками. Принципы Основные принципы почвенничества были сформулированы на страницах ряда толстых литературных журналов, но главным образом сотрудниками журналов «Время» и «Эпоха» Аполлоном Григорьевым, братьями Михаилом и Фёдором Достоевскими, Николаем Страховым, проводившими острую полемику с рупором нигилизма — «Русским словом» Д. И. Писарева и оплотом революционных демократов журналом «Современник», когда его редактором был Н. Г. Чернышевский. Несмотря на то, что почвенничество представляло собой разновидность европейского философского романтизма и примыкало к позднему славянофильству, полное его отождествление с последним не вполне корректно. В непримиримом противоборстве славянофильства и западничества, когда «редкий современник представлял себе иное решение проблемы „Россия—Запад“, нежели альтернативное», представители почвенничества признавали положительные начала этих течений, но претендовали на собственную независимую «нейтральную» позицию. Об этой собственной позиции Ф. М. Достоевский декларировал в сентябре 1860 года в «Объявлении о подписке на журнал „Время“ на 1861 год», которое стало кратким манифестом почвенничества. Независимая позиция почвенников относительно западников и славянофилов утверждалась в различных публикациях сотрудников журнала, в частности в статье Ф. М. Достоевского «Два лагеря теоретиков (по поводу „Дня“ и кой-чего другого)» (1862, № 2 (февраль)). А. Л. Осповат писал, что Достоевский и Григорьев «равно отвергали славянофильство и западничество как замкнутые идеологические системы, предполагавшие четкое разделение людей на „наших“ и „не наших“ и канонизировавшие свои опорные постулаты, по отношению к которым (внутри соответствующей структуры) не допускалось ни сомнения, ни иронии». Прежде всего, Достоевского и Григорьева сближало общее представление о «русской идее». Устойчивым и неизменным «ядром» понятия Ф. М. Достоевского «русская идея» была «вера в нашу русскую самобытность». Почвенники признавали особой миссией русского народа спасение всего человечества, проповедовали идею сближения «образованного общества» с народом, на народной или национальной «почве» с религиозно-этической основой. Представители почвенничества выступали против крепостнического дворянства и бюрократии, призывали к «слитию образованности и её представителей с началом народным» и в этом видели залог прогресса в России в её противостоянии Западу. Почвенники высказывались за развитие промышленности, торговли, за свободу личности и печати. Принимая «европейскую культуру», они одновременно обличали «гнилой Запад» — его буржуазность и бездуховность, отвергали революционные, социалистические идеи и материализм, противопоставляя им христианские идеалы. В 1870-е годы черты почвенничества проявились в философских сочинениях Николая Данилевского и «Дневнике писателя» Фёдора Достоевского. Наиболее обстоятельно почвенничество рассматривается в монографиях польского политолога Анджея де Лазари, канадского историка Уэйна Доулера (Wayne Dowler), публициста Александра Буздалова. Pochvennichestvo. Pochvennichestvo (roughly "return to the native soil", from почва "soil") was a late 19th-century movement in Russia that tied in closely with its contemporary ideology, Slavophilia. Both the Slavophiles and the Pochvennichestvo supported the complete emancipation of serfdom, stressed a strong desire to return to the idealised past of Russian history, and opposed Europeanization. They also chose a complete rejection of the nihilist, classical liberal and Marxist movements of the time. Their primary focus was to change Russian society by the humbling of the self and social reform through the Russian Orthodox Church, rather than the radical implementations of the intelligentsia. The major differences between the Slavophiles and the Pochvennichestvo were that the former detested the Westernisation policies of Peter the Great, but the latter praised what were seen as the benefits of the notorious ruler who maintained a strong patriotic mentality for Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality. Another major difference was that many of the leaders of Pochvennichestvo and supporters adopted a militant anti-Protestant, anti-Catholic and anti-Semitic stance. The movement had its roots in the works of the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder, who focused primarily on emphasising the differences among people and regional cultures. In addition, it rejected the universalism of the Enlightenment period.

* Народничество [Narodniks] (1860-1910-х). Народничество — идеология, существовавшая в Российской империи в 1860—1910-х годах, позиционирующая себя на «сближении» интеллигенции с простым народом в поисках своих корней, своего места в государстве, стране и мире. Движение народничества было связано с идеей потери интеллигенцией своей связи с «народной мудростью», «народной правдой». Господствовавшее в 1860—1880 годах в России течение социально-политической мысли. Выделяют следующие направления народничества: революционное, либеральное, анархистское. В советской историографии народничество представляло второй («разночинский») этап революционного движения в России, пришедшим на смену «дворянскому» (декабристам) и предшествовавшим «пролетарскому» (марксистскому) этапу. Энциклопедический словарь Ф. А. Брокгауза и И. А. Ефрона отмечал, что термин не имеет точного значения. В конце 1880-х годов, когда шла полемика между «либеральной» журналистикой и уличным патриотизмом, так могли называть сторонников шовинизма и разнуздывания толпы. В то же время термин часто употреблялся как синоним демократизма и интереса к народу. Малый энциклопедический словарь Ф. А. Брокгауза и И. А. Ефрона определял народничество как направление в русской литературе с начала 1870-х годов, ставившее себе задачей изучение разных сторон народной жизни и сближение интеллигенции с народом, преимущественно с крестьянством, обращавшееся к нему считая, что в народной массе живут общественные и этические идеалы (общинное и артельное начало, религиозные искания и т. д.). Новый энциклопедический словарь уточняет: в XX в., особенно после 1905 г., спор об «особенностях» русского народного склада почти прекращается, и термин народничество применяется почти исключительно в тесно-политическом смысле. В противоположность «марксистам», «народниками» называют как «социалистов-революционеров», так и партию «народных социалистов». Narodniks. {Social revolutionaries and 'the people'} The Narodniks were a politically conscious movement of the Russian middle class in the 1860s and 1870s, some of whom became involved in revolutionary agitation against tsarism. Their ideology was known as Narodnichestvo, from narod, "people, folk", was a form of agrarian socialism though is often mistranslated as populism or peopleism. A common slogan among the Narodniks was khozhdeniye v narod, meaning "going to the people". The khozhdeniye v narod campaigns were the central impetus of the Narodnik movement. Though their movement achieved little in its own time, the Narodniks were in many ways the intellectual and political forebears and, in notable cases, direct participants of the Russian Revolution—in particular of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, which went on to greatly influence Russian history in the 20th century. Land and Liberty (Russia) 1870s. In August 1879, however, Land and Liberty broke up in two independent organizations: Narodnaya Volya and Chernyi Peredel. Narodnaya Volya Narodnaya Volya was a 19th-century revolutionary political organization in the Russian Empire which conducted targeted killing of government officials in attempt to promote reforms in the country. The organization declared itself to be a populist movement that succeeded Narodniks. Narodnaya Volya emerged in Autumn 1879. Black Repartition (movement) Black Repartition, Party of Socialists-Federalists was a revolutionary populist organization in Russia in the early 1880s. "Chyornyi" in this context does not literally mean "black" but "universal". «Чёрным Переделом» назвалась система перераспределения земли в крестьянских общинах, другое название — коренной передел. Originally, the BR members shared the ideas of Zemlya i volya, renounced the necessity of political struggle and were against terror and conspiracy tactics of Narodnaya Volya. BR preferred propaganda and agitation ('agitprop') as their tactics.

* Земля и Воля [Land and Liberty] (1861). «Земля и Воля» — тайное революционное общество, возникшее в России в 1861 году и просуществовавшее до 1864 года, с 1876 года по 1879 годы восстановившееся как народническая организация. Land and Liberty. Land and Liberty was a Russian clandestine revolutionary organization of Narodniki (middle- or upper-class revolutionaries attempting to spread socialism in rural areas) in the 1870s. In Russian, it is Земля и воля, transliterated Zemlya i volya or Zemlia i volia, and usually translated as Land and Liberty or Land and Freedom.

* Иван Тургенев - Отцы и дети [роман] (1862). «Отцы́ и де́ти» — роман И. С. Тургенева, написанный в 1860—1861 годах и опубликованный в 1862 году. В обстановке «великих реформ» книга стала сенсацией и привлекла к себе всеобщее внимание, а образ главного героя Евгения Базарова был воспринят как воплощение нового, пореформенного поколения, став примером для подражания молодёжи 1860-х гг. Свойственные Базарову бескомпромиссность, отсутствие преклонения перед авторитетами и старыми истинами, приоритет полезного над прекрасным стали идеалами первого поколения пореформенной интеллигенции. Fathers and Sons, also translated more literally as Fathers and Children, is an 1862 novel by Ivan Turgenev. The fathers and children of the novel refers to the growing divide between the two generations of Russians, and the character Yevgeny Bazarov, a nihilist who rejects the old order. Turgenev wrote Fathers and Sons as a response to the growing cultural schism that he saw between liberals of the 1830s/1840s and the growing nihilist movement. Both the nihilists (the "sons") and the 1830s liberals (the "fathers") sought Western-based social change in Russia. Additionally, these two modes of thought were contrasted with the Slavophiles, who believed that Russia's path lay in its traditional spirituality.

* Николай Чернышевский - Что делать? [роман] (1863). «Что де́лать?» (Из рассказов о новых людях) — роман русского философа, журналиста и литературного критика Николая Чернышевского, написанный в декабре 1862 — апреле 1863 гг., во время заключения в Петропавловской крепости Санкт-Петербурга. Был написан отчасти в ответ на произведение Ивана Тургенева «Отцы и дети». М. Н. Катков упоминает роман как «Коран нигилизма». Публикация вызвала раздражение. Ответственного цензора Бекетова отстранили от должности. Номера «Современника», в которых печатался роман «Что делать?», оказались под запретом. Однако текст романа в рукописных копиях разошёлся по стране и вызвал массу подражаний. «Что делать?», как и «Отцы и дети», породило так называемый антинигилистический роман. В частности, «На ножах» Лескова, где пародийно используются мотивы произведения Чернышевского. Запрет на публикацию романа «Что делать?» был снят только в 1905 году. В 1906 году роман был впервые напечатан в России отдельным изданием. Философские идеи. Во 2 главе Чернышевский устами Лопухова («нового человека») излагает принципы разумного эгоизма, согласно которому основным мотивом человеческих поступков является «стремление к пользе». Лопухов выбирает карьеру медика, потому что врачи «живут гораздо лучше» канцелярских чиновников. Польза синонимична «выгоде» {profit} и «расчету» {payment; +yield ??}. Она воплощается в «куске хлеба». Любовь выступает «украшением» дела. Когда Вера Павловна спрашивает, должна ли она выйти замуж за богатого, но неприятного жениха, Лопухов не пытается её отговорить. Аналогичной философии придерживается и друг Лопухова студент Кирсанов, который заявляет, что любит только самого себя. При этом зло переносится с личности на «обстановку». «Святым стариком» этих «новых людей» назван Овэн, чей портрет висит в домашнем кабинете Лопухова. С эгоизмом соединяются социалистические представления о будущем, когда «все потребности натуры каждого человека будут удовлетворяться вполне». Словами Рахметова Чернышевский решительно осуждает ревность как «следствие взгляда на человека как мою принадлежность, как на вещь». В 4 главе Чернышевский вкладывает в уста Веры Павловны феминистские идеи о превосходстве женской природы над мужской в плане ума и что лишь «господство насилия» не позволяло найти им должную реализацию. Кроме того, заявляется о большей крепости «женского организма» по сравнению с мужским. Представление о слабости женщин вызвано лишь «силой предубеждения, дурной привычкой, фальшивым ожиданием». Художественное своеобрази. Подчёркнуто занимательное, авантюрное, мелодраматическое начало романа должно было не только сбить с толку цензуру, но и привлечь широкие массы читателей. Внешний сюжет романа — любовная история, однако в нём отражены новые экономические, философские и социальные идеи времени. Роман пронизан намёками на грядущую революцию. What Is To Be Done? ("What To Do?") is an 1863 novel written by the Russian philosopher, journalist and literary critic Nikolai Chernyshevsky. It was written in response to Fathers and Sons (1862) by Ivan Turgenev. The novel advocates the creation of small socialist cooperatives based on the Russian peasant commune, but oriented toward industrial production. The author promoted the idea that the intellectual's duty was to educate and lead the laboring masses in Russia along a path to socialism that bypassed capitalism. The novel has been called "a handbook of radicalism" and led to the founding of the Land and Liberty society. [E275]

* Николай Лесков - На ножах [роман] (1871). «На ножах» — антинигилистический роман Николая Лескова с авантюрно-уголовным сюжетом. Впервые опубликован в журнале «Русский вестник» № 10—12 за 1870 год, № 1—8, 10 за 1871 год. В ноябре 1871 года вышел отдельной книгой. В романе «бывшие революционеры становятся полицейскими агентами и чиновниками, ради денег хитроумно обманывая друг друга», а «нигилизм трактован как беспринципность, ставшая жизненной философией».
* Максим Горький - Исповедь (роман). На Капри Горький написал также «Исповедь» (1908), где обозначились его философские расхождения с Лениным (который посещал Капри для встреч с Горьким в апреле 1908 и июне 1910 годов) и сближение с богостроителями Луначарским и Богдановым. Между 1908 и 1910 годом Горький переживал душевный кризис, отразившийся и на его творчестве: в примиренческой, антибунтарской повести «Исповедь», вызвавшей своим конформизмом раздражение и досаду Ленина, сам Горький после переосмысления уловил избыточную дидактичность. Горький искренне не понимал, почему Ленин более склонен к альянсу с меньшевиками-плехановцами, чем с большевиками-богдановцами. Вскоре и у Горького обозначился разрыв с группой Богданова (его школа «богостроителей» была отселена на виллу «Паскуале»), под влиянием Ленина у писателя начался отход от махистской и богоискательской философии в пользу марксизма. Идеализация приближающейся революции у Горького продолжалась вплоть до того, как он воочию убедился в беспощадной жестокости послеоктябрьских реалий в России. // Повесть вызвала неоднозначную реакцию. Писатель, создавший образец этого жанра, Л. Н. Толстой высказался о ней крайне резко, удивляясь «тому, как это можно писать, и более — тому, что это печатают». Эта оценка дана, конечно, не художественной стороне повести, а идеологической. Для Толстого богостроительство, проповедуемое Горьким, неприемлемо в принципе: как моралист он уже имеет Бога в виде моральных заповедей и нравственного закона, повелевающего не совершать зла и терпеть до конца, как учил Христос всем образом своей жизни и своей смертью. Отношение Горького к Толстому было однозначным. При всем уважении к этой колоссальной фигуре, Горький еще в 1905 г. пишет: «Есть что–то подавляюще уродливое и постыдное, есть что–то близкое злой насмешке в этой проповеди терпения и непротивления злу». // «Исповедь» М. Горького как манифест богостроительства http://www.newgod.su/discours/ispoved-m-gorkogo-kak-manifest-bogostroitelstva https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ispoved-m-gorkogo-kak-primer-hudozhestvennoy-ispovedi-bogostroitelstva // «ИСПОВЕДЬ» М. ГОРЬКОГО КАК ПРОПОВЕДЬ «НОВОЙ РЕЛИГИИ» http://libelli.ru/works/pi3-1/ii2v.htm // Читать: http://gorkiy-lit.ru/gorkiy/proza/ispoved/ispoved.htm [E277]

* Народная воля [Narodnaya Volya] (1879). {народоволец, народовольчество, народовольческий} Народная воля - революционная народническая организация, возникшая в 1879 году после раскола организации «Земля и воля» и распада террористической группы «Свобода или смерть», поставившая основной целью принуждение правительства к демократическим реформам, после которых можно было бы проводить борьбу за социальное преобразование общества. Narodnaya Volya. Narodnaya Volya (lit. People's Will) was a 19th-century revolutionary political organization in the Russian Empire which conducted targeted killing of government officials in attempt to promote reforms in the country. The organization declared itself to be a populist movement that succeeded Narodniks. Composed primarily of young revolutionary socialist intellectuals believing in the efficacy of terrorism, Narodnaya Volya emerged in Autumn 1879 from the split of an earlier revolutionary organization called Zemlya i Volya ("Land and Liberty"). A set of "populist" values became commonplace among these radical intellectuals seeking change of the Russian economic and political form. The Russian peasantry, based as it was upon its historic village governing structure, the peasant commune (obshchina or mir), and its collective holding and periodic redistribution of farmland, was held to be inherently socialistic, or at least fundamentally amenable to socialist organization. It was further believed that this fact made possible a unique path for the modernization of Russia which bypassed the industrial poverty that was a feature of early capitalism in Western Europe—the region to which Russian intellectuals looked for inspiration and by which they measured the comparatively backwards state of their own polity. Moreover, the radical intelligentsia believed it axiomatic that individuals and the nation had the power to control their own destiny and that it was the moral duty of enlightened civil society to transform the nation by leading the peasantry in mass revolt that would ultimately transform Russia to a socialist society. These ideas were regarded by most radical intellectuals of the era as nearly incontestable, the byproduct of decades of observation and thought dating back to the conservative Slavophiles and sketched out by such disparate writers as Alexander Herzen (1812–1870), Pyotr Lavrov (1823–1900), and Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876). The assassination of Tsar Alexander II on March 1 (13), 1881, marked the high-water mark of Narodnaya Volya as a factor in Russian politics. [E145]

* Толстовство [Tolstoyan movement] (1880-х). Толстовство — религиозно-этическое общественное течение в России конца XIX — начала XX веков. Возникло в 1880-х годах под влиянием религиозно-философского учения Льва Толстого. Основы толстовства изложены Толстым в произведениях «Исповедь», «В чём моя вера?», «О жизни», «Христианское учение» и др. Последователи — толстовцы. Tolstoyan movement. The Tolstoyan movement is a social movement based on the philosophical and religious views of Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910). Tolstoy's views were formed by rigorous study of the ministry of Jesus, particularly the Sermon on the Mount.

* Дю-Прель, Карл [Karl, Freiherr von Prel] (1839-1899; философ, спиритист). Карл Дю-Прель (Дюпрель; дю Прель нем. Carl Du Prel), барон фон Прель (нем. Karl Freiherr von Prel) — немецкий писатель, философ, спиритист и оккультист, офранцузивший своё имя. Проводил учение о двойственности и чередовании человеческого сознания, — в зависимости от состояний сна или бодрствования. Karl, Freiherr von Prel. Karl Ludwig August Friedrich Maximilian Alfred, Freiherr von Prel, or, in French, Carl Ludwig August Friedrich Maximilian Alfred, Baron du Prel (3 April 1839 – 4 August 1899), was a German philosopher and writer on mysticism and the occult. In the literature it has become customary to refer to him under various abbreviated French forms of his name, usually "Carl Du Prel," "Baron Carl Du Prel," or simply "Baron Du Prel." Du Prel sought to combine early parapsychological research and Kantian transcendental idealism to argue that mystical experiences were universal and subjective, paralleling a similar argument made by William James.

* Софиология ["Софианство"; Sophiology] (XIX/XX). Софиоло́гия (др.-греч. sofia «Премудрость, Высшая Мудрость» и др.-греч. logos «учение, наука»; в работах критиков этого учения также именуется Софианством) — синкретическое религиозно-философское учение, включающее философскую теорию «положительного всеединства», понимание искусства в духе мистической «свободной теургии», преображающей мир на путях к его духовному совершенству, концепция художественного выражения «вечных идей» и мистическое узрение Софии как космического творческого принципа. Была изложена и развита русскими философами XIX—XX века: Владимиром Соловьёвым, Сергием Булгаковым, Павлом Флоренским, Львом Карсавиным и другими. Sophiology is a controversial school of thought in Russian Orthodoxy which holds that Divine Wisdom is to be identified with God's essence, and that the Divine Wisdom is in some way expressed in the world as 'creaturely' wisdom. This notion has often been understood or misunderstood (depending upon one's point of view) as introducing a feminine "fourth hypostasis" into the Trinity. // Holy Wisdom in Russian mysticism. The Christological identification of Christ the Logos with Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) is strongly represented in the iconographic tradition of the Russian Orthodox Church. A type of icon of the Theotokos is "Wisdom hath builded Her house" (Премудрость созда Себе дом), a quote from Proverbs 9:1 ("Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars") interpreted as prefiguring the incarnation, with the Theotokos being the "house" chosen by the "hypostatic Wisdom" (i.e. "Wisdom" as a person of the Trinity). In Russian Orthodox mysticism, Sophia became increasingly indistinguishable from the person of the Theotokos (rather than Christ), to the point of the implication of the Theotokos as a "fourth person of the Trinity". Such interpretations became popular in the late 19th to early 20th century, forwarded by authors such as Vladimir Solovyov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, and Sergei Bulgakov. Bulgakov's theology, known as "Sophianism" {Sophiology}, presented Divine Wisdom as co-existent with the Trinity, operating as the feminine aspect of God in concert with the three masculine principles of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. It was the topic of a highly political controversy in the early 1930s and was condemned as heretical in 1935. Holy Wisdom § Russian mysticism // In 1935, parts of Fr. Sergius Bulgakov's doctrine of Sophia were condemned by the Patriarch of Moscow and other Russian Orthodox hierarchs. Although Bulgakov was censured by the aforementioned hierarchs, a committee commissioned by Metropolitan Eulogius to critique Bulgakov's Sophiology found his system questionable, but not heretical, and issued no formal censure (save for a minority report written by two members of the committee, Fr. Florovsky and Fr. Chetverikov). For Bulgakov, Theotokos St. Mary was the world soul and the “Pneumatophoric hypostasis” {Stoics}, a Bulgakov neologism. Sophiology. // В начале прошлаго, 1936 года протоиереем о. Сергием Булгаковым была подана Митрополиту Евлогию «Докладная записка» по поводу «Определения» Архиерейскаго Собора Русской Зарубежной Церкви относительно его, о. Булгакова, учения о Софии, Премудрости Божией. Эта «Докладная Записка» содержит в себе возражения на соборное определение, осудившее софианское учение прот. Булгакова, как ересь. Разсмотрим здесь эти возражения, чтобы показать всю их несостоятельность. "Защита софианской ереси прот.С.Булгаковым пред лицом архиерейского Собора РЗЦ". архиеп.Серафим (Соболев)

* Софиология [Соловьёв]. Основной идеей его религиозной философии была София — Душа Мира, понимаемая как мистическое космическое существо, объединяющее Бога с земным миром. София представляет собой вечную женственность в Боге и, одновременно, замысел Бога о мире. Этот образ встречается в Библии. Соловьёву же он был открыт в мистическом видении, о котором повествует его поэма «Три свидания». Идея Софии реализуется трояким способом: в теософии формируется представление о ней, в теургии она обретается {abide, be found}, а в теократии она воплощается. Теософия — дословно Божественная мудрость. Она представляет собой синтез научных открытий и откровений христианской религии в рамках цельного знания. Вера не противоречит разуму, а дополняет его. Соловьёв признаёт идею эволюции, но считает её попыткой преодоления грехопадения через прорыв к Богу. Эволюция проходит пять этапов или «царств»: минеральное, растительное, животное, человеческое и Божье. Теургия — дословно боготворчество. Соловьёв решительно выступал против моральной нейтральности науки. Теургия — это очистительная практика, без которой невозможно обретение истины. В её основе лежит культивирование христианской любви как отречение от самоутверждения ради единства с другими. Теократия — дословно власть Бога, то, что Чаадаев называл совершенным строем. «Теократическую миссию» Соловьёв возлагал на Россию, при этом сохраняя симпатии католицизму. Теократия заключается в «истинной солидарности всех наций и классов», а также в «христианстве, осуществлённом в общественной жизни».

* Владимир Соловьев - Смысл любви [1892-1894]. «Смысл любви» — цикл из пяти статей Владимира Соловьева, опубликованный в журнале «Вопросы философии и психологии» в 1892—1894 годах. Н. А. Бердяев считал, что «"Смысл любви" Вл. Соловьева - самое замечательное, что было написано о любви». Как пишет А. Ф. Лосев в своей монографии о философе, «здесь Вл. Соловьев в виде единственного пути спасения для человечества проповедует половую любовь, которую он, правда, чрезвычайно одухотворяет, так что под сомнением остается даже вся её физиология, как об этом можно судить в примечаниях (VII, 22). По Соловьеву, эта любовь не имеет никакого отношения к деторождению, она есть преодоление эгоизма, слияние любящего и любимого в одно нераздельное целое; она есть, правда, слабое воспроизведение отношений Христа и церкви; она есть образ вечного всеединства». [E202]

* Эсхатология Владимира Соловьева [eschatology according to Vladimir Solovyov]. Принципиально христианский характер эсхатологии Вл. Соловьева — в том, что конец этого мира в его представлении не есть действие Бога, абсолютно чуждого миру. Бытие мира — священная история, т.е. история напряженного взаимоотношения Бога и мира. Спасая Мир, Бог находить в нем и верных служителей, и грех, кто противится спасению мира своим 6ездействиемъ и неведением {ignorance}, и прямых врагов. История имеет свою логику, и последнее, эсхатологическое вмешательство Вседержителя в бытие мира, упраздняющее {cancel, abolish, annihilate} этот мир и утверждающее «иное бытие вечное» (Пасхальный канон) происходит тогда, когда человечество исчерпало все свои возможности, и каждая личность дала Богу окончательный ответ на извечный Его спасительный призыв. Поэтому Соловьёвские представления о метаистории соотносятся с его пониманием истории и, не в последнюю очередь, с его попыткой оказать влияние на ход истории, выразившейся в его знаменитом «теократическом проекте». Валентин Асмус - ЭСХАТОЛОГИЯ ВЛАДИМИРА СОЛОВЬЕВА // М. 3. Мусин - КОНЕЦ ИСТОРИИ: ЭСХАТОЛОГИЯ И ЭТИКА В. С. СОЛОВЬЕВА Гранин Р.С. - ЭСХАТОЛОГИЯ ВСЕЕДИНСТВА ВЛАДИМИРА СОЛОВЬЁВА [E16]

* Мистический анархизм [анархо-мистицизм] (1906). Мистический анархизм (анархо-мистицизм) — философско-эстетическая теория Георгия Чулкова. В мистическом анархизме, ставшем заметным явлением на фоне революционных настроений в России 1905—1907 годов, Г. Чулков попытался «соединить мистическое мироощущение с социальными воззрениями эпохи». Основные положения теории состояли в следующем: 1) «борьба с догматизмом в религии, философии морали и политике», 2) «утверждение мистической личности в общественности», 3) внутренняя свобода личности, 4) устремление к соборности, сверхиндивидуализм, 5) неприятие мира («мистико-анархисты не принимают мира как такового и мечтают о мире преображённом»). Доктрина Чулкова, изложенная им в книге 1906 года, имела «теоретические недочёты, сумбурность изложения и несамостоятельность». Блок обращал внимание на то, что теория мистического анархизма построена «на лирических основаниях». Брюсов отмечал, что изложенные Чулковым идеи принадлежат «Кропоткину, Бакунину, В. Розанову, Д. Мережковскому, Вл. Соловьеву, Ф. Достоевскому». Тем не менее, мистический анархизм «в какой-то мере отразил настроения части русской интеллигенции — „хилиастические надежды, вызванные революцией 1905 г. у многих символистов“» и стал первым явным предвестником произошедшего в 1910 году раскола русского символизма на эстетов и мистиков. [E208]

* Богостроительство [God-Building, Marxism] (1910s). Богостроительство — этико-философское течение в русском марксизме, развивавшееся левыми литераторами в первом десятилетии XX века с целью интеграции идей марксизма и религии и основанное на сходстве социалистического и христианского мировоззрения. Его приверженцы не «искали» Бога как некую существующую надмировую сущность, а стремились «построить» его из мощи коллектива. Впоследствии богостроительство рассматривалось как одна из первых трактовок марксистской философии в религиозном русле. Богостроительство в среде русских социал-демократов представляли Анатолий Васильевич Луначарский , Владимир Александрович Базаров (Руднев), а также Максим Горький ; к движению примыкал Александр Александрович Богданов. God-Building (Marxism). God-Building was an idea proposed by some prominent early Marxists. The idea proposed that in place of the abolition of religion, there should be a meta-religious context in which religions were viewed primarily in terms of the psychological and social effect of ritual, myth, and symbolism, and which attempted to harness this force for pro-communist aims. In contrast to the atheism of Lenin, the God-Builders took an official position of agnosticism. [E18]

* Богочеловек [God-man]. Богочелове́к (лат. Theanthropos) — в христианстве Бог, воплотившийся в человеке, Иисус Христос. В христианстве Богочеловек — догматическое определение воплотившегося Сына Божьего — второго лица Св. Троицы, Иисуса Христа, основанное на Священном Предании, Священном Писании, Никео-Цареградском и Халкидонском Символах веры и определениях Вселенских соборов, сформулированное в процессе сложной богословской полемики; это определение раскрывается через неслитное, нераздельное, неразлучное и неизменное соединение двух природ — божественной и человеческой в Иисусе Христе, Сыне Божьем . На основе этого определения были разработаны учения о двух волях и двух действиях Иисуса Христа, а также система представления о сообщении свойств, обожении человеческого естества, нераздельное поклонение и почитание Девы Марии Богородицы. God-man (Christianity). God-man (Koinē Greek: θεάνθρωπος, romanized: theánthropos; Latin: deus homo) refers to the incarnation and the hypostatic union of Christ, which are one of mainstream Christianity's most widely accepted and revered christological doctrines. Origins. The first usage of the term "God-man" as a theological concept appears in the writing of the 3rd-century Church Father Origen. "This substance of a soul, then, being intermediate between God and the flesh – it being impossible for the nature of God to intermingle with a body without an intermediate instrument – the God-man is born." The Council of Chalcedon, meeting in 451 AD, affirmed that Christ had two natures – human and divine – in hypostatic union. Much is also written of the God-man by the medieval philosopher and theologian Anselm of Canterbury (11th century) in his treatise on the atonement, Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became Man): "If it be necessary, therefore, as it appears, that the heavenly kingdom be made up of men, and this cannot be effected unless the aforesaid satisfaction be made, which none but God can make and none but man ought to make, it is necessary for the God-man to make it. {??} Therefore the God-man, whom we require to be of a nature both human and Divine, cannot be produced by a change from one into the other, nor by an imperfect commingling of both in a third; since these things cannot be, or, if they could be, would avail nothing to our purpose. (...) Since, then, it is necessary that the God-man preserve the completeness of each nature, it is no less necessary that these two natures be united entire in one person, just as a body and a reasonable soul exist together in every human being; for otherwise it is impossible that the same being should be very God and very man." // Avatar (Hinduism). Avatar (Sanskrit: avatāra), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a deity on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes used to refer to any guru or revered human being.

* Богочеловек <> Человекобожие [God-man, God become Man <> Man become God]. // The term 'человекобожие' is only used in a negative sense. // Религиозную идею спасения Достоевский понимает как возрождение, восстановление Христом первозданной человеческой природы, которая обладала райской красотой. В то же время спасение – это финальное возникновение «новой твари», приобщенной к Красоте и Славе Христовой в Святом Духе. «Атеизм» в отличие от христианства «ожидает возрождения» человека собственными силами и принимает современное состояние природы за точку отсчета. Достижение антропологического идеала для Достоевского – это, конечно, вовсе не обретение человеком Божественной сущности. Герой «Бесов» Кириллов, самый странный, почти невероятный христоборец писателя, мечтает именно о человекобоге, о боге по природе. В концепции героя человек возвращает себе первоначальное достоинство и достигает окончательной онтологической перемены при помощи собственных усилий, заявляя своеволие. Идеал Достоевского – совсем другой. Тайна преображения человека раскрывается для него в тайне Богочеловека. Противопоставление человекобога и Богочеловека в антропологии Достоевского принадлежит к основополагающим положениям. Пичугина О. В. - Православная антропология Достоевского (концепция личности) // В своих философских статьях в этот период Булгаков анализировал сложный, противоречивый и трагический процесс перехода огромного числа людей от христианской религии Богочеловека (Иисуса Христа) к атеистической, нигилистической религии человекобога. Отправной философской точкой этого процесса Булгаков считал работы немецкого философа XIX века Людвига Фейербаха, суть которых была выражена в формуле Homo homini deus est (человек человеку бог), ставившей человека на место Бога. (...) К концу XIX — нач. XX вв. гуманизм, пришедший когда-то на смену средневековому сознанию, разделился на два вида: христианский гуманизм (религия Богочеловека) и антихристианский гуманизм (религия человекобога). (...) Выбор между Богочеловеком и человекобогом, по мнению Булгакова, равносилен выбору между добром и злом. РУССКАЯ ИНТЕЛЛИГЕНЦИЯ И ЧЕЛОВЕКОБОЖИЕ // ЧЕЛОВЕКОБОЖИЕ, религия человекобожества – термин, употреблявшийся русскими религиозными философами (С. Булгаков, Н. Бердяев, В. Эрн) для характеристики мировоззрения интеллигенции, стоявшей на позициях социализма и атеизма, которая создала «религию Ч.». По Булгакову, любой человек, даже утративший веру в Бога, остается религиозным, а потому может создать только суррогат религии: божественные черты приписываются человечеству. http://www.bibliotekar.ru/religiovedenie-3/37.htm // "Человекобожие – религиозно-философская концепция, суррогат религии в форме наделения человечества божественными чертами. Гуманизм – религиозно-философское учение человекобожия, ставшее общефилософским и методологическим принципом бытия современной индустриально-технологической цивилизации, образно называемой “Западом”… Человек, его права и свободы являются высшей ценностью." ХРИСТИАНСКИЕ ЦЕННОСТИ ИЛИ «ГУМАНИЗМ» СОДОМА? https://chel.pravoslavie.ru/814.html // God-man. Богочеловечество — понятие русской религиозной философии, восходящее к христианскому учению о единстве «неслитном, неизменном, нераздельном, непреложном» божественной и человеческой природы Иисуса Христа. Богочеловек (Theanthropos) — в христианстве Бог, воплотившийся в человеке, Иисус Христос. // Wikipedia - Воплощение. Православное богословие считает уникальным и неповторимым воплощение Бога в человеческой природе. Во Христе всесовершенный Бог соединился с нашей обычной, полноценной (но обезличенной) человеческой природой (состоящей из человеческого духа, души и тела и имеющей человеческий разум, волю, и чувства-желания), но Личность во Христе только Божественная (Бог-Слово[5]). Если бы во Христе была бы ещё и человеческая личность, то Он был бы одним из многих святых человеком (пусть даже самым святым), но уже не Богочеловеком. // Berdyaev: Christ is God-man. Явление Христа-Богочеловека и есть совершенное соединение двух движений, от Бога к человеку и от человека к Богу, окончательное порождение Бога в человеке и человека в Боге, осуществление тайны двуединства, тайны богочеловечности. (...) Царство Божье есть царство Богочеловечества, в нем окончательно Бог рождается в человеке и человек рождается в Боге, и осуществляется оно в Духе. С этим связан основной миф христианства, миф в высшей степени реалистический, выражающий самую первооснову бытия, самый первофеномен жизни, мистерию жизни. Это - миф о двуединой природе и двуедином движении, о Богочеловеке и Богочеловечестве. (..) Мир остается разорванным; с одной стороны, церковный мир и церковное сознание, с другой стороны, гуманистический мир и гуманистическое сознание. Эти два мира не встретились еще лицом к лицу в постановке и решении религиозной проблемы человека. Лишь у отдельных гениев такой предельной остроты достигает постановка проблемы человека, что сталкиваются непосредственно христианство и гуманизм. Таков Достоевский, таков Ницше. Они очень разные, но одинаково служат религиозному антропологическому сознанию, одинаково преодолевают нейтральную сферу, далекую от неба и от ада, от Бога и от дьявола. Преодоление столкновения идеи Богочеловека и человеко-бога должно во всей ясности и полноте поставить религиозный вопрос о человеке. Но ответ церковного сознания на ересь гуманизма будет существенно отличаться по своему характеру от тех ответов, которые давала Церковь на прежние ереси. В церковном ответе на ересь гуманизма должна раскрыться истина о творческой природе человека. (...) Античный титанизм и героизм не мог разрешить проблемы человеческой судьбы, он только ее ставил. Разрешение это достигается лишь в религии Богочеловека и Богочеловечества. Христианский подвижник, святой достигает той последней победы над "миром", над стихиями природы, роком, которые были трагически недостижимы для героя и титана. Трагический герой идет к гибели. Христианский святой идет к воскресению. (...) Через Христа-Богочеловека человек имеет корни в самой глубине Божьей жизни. (...) Человек доходит до абсолютного самосознания лишь через Христа-Богочеловека. Теософическая христология такова, что она приводит к отрицанию человека. Теософия или стоит на дохристианском, индусском сознании и видит в Иисусе Христе одного из великих учителей, или строит натуралистическую христологию и видит в Христе космический импульс. Но все формы теософии одинаково разрывают Иисуса и Христа и отрицают богочеловечество. Николай Бердяев - ФИЛОСОФИЯ СВОБОДНОГО ДУХА. ГЛАВА VI - Бог, человек и богочеловек. http://www.vehi.net/berdyaev/fsduha/06.html // Union with God. Возможно ли для человека соединение с Богом? Да, такая возможность существует. И связующим звеном здесь является религия. (...) Ибо человек войдет в общение с Богом только при том условии, что его нравственная природа будет соответствовать природе Божественной. О соединении с Богом. [E113]

* Berdyayev's Philosophy of the Free Mind [Философия свободного духа Бердяева]. [unrelated] Бердяев H.A. "Философия свободного духа" 1994. ГЛАВА IV Свобода духа. "Дух есть свобода. Дух не знает внеположности {externality}, не знает принуждающих его объективных предметов. В духе все определяется изнутри, из глубины. Быть в духе значит быть в самом себе. И необходимость природного мира для духа есть лишь отражение его внутренних процессов. Религиозный пафос свободы есть пафос духовности. Обрести подлинную свободу значит войти в духовный мир {spark of spirituality trapped in matter: freedom is death}." ГЛАВА VI Бог, человек и богочеловек. "Начинать философствовать и богословствовать следовало бы не с Бога и не с человека, ибо оба эти начала оставляют разорванность непреодоленной, а с Богочеловека. Первичный феномен религиозной жизни есть встреча и взаимодействие Бога и человека, движение от Бога к человеку и от человека к Богу. В христианстве находит этот факт наиболее напряженное, сосредоточенное и полное свое выражение. В христианстве раскрывается человечность Бога. Очеловечение Бога есть основной процесс в религиозном самосознании человечества." http://www.vehi.net/berdyaev/fsduha/index.html [E25]

* Новое религиозное сознание [Мережковские; New Religious Consciousness] (early XX). Новое религиозное сознание - религиозно-философское течение, возникшее в начале 20 века в среде русской либеральной интеллигенции, является важной составляющей русской религиозной философии в целом. Основные представители НРС – Д.С. Мережковский, З.Н. Гиппиус, В.В. Розанов, Н.А. Бердяев и др. НРС формировалось под влиянием идей В.С. Соловьёва и Ф.М. Достоевского, Ф. Ницше и С. Кьеркегора, русского сектантства и старообрядчества, видна связь и с учением средневекового мистика Иоахима Флорского о наступлении эпохи Третьего Завета как нового этапа в отношениях Бога и человека. Наиболее полно идею НРС развил Мережковский, который понимал её, как стремление к синтезу неба и земли, духа и плоти, христианства и язычества, как наступление эпохи «Третьего завета», связанной с дальнейшим догматическим развитием христианства и способной обеспечить свободную, полнокровную и религиозно насыщенную жизнь. Основной ячейкой новой «религиозной общественности» Мережковский считал религиозную общину из 3 человек (по примеру «церкви», основанной Мережковским, Гиппиус и Д.В. Философовым). Н.А. Бердяев в рамках НРС развивал идеи сакрализации культурного творчества и свободы человеческого духа. В.В. Розанов выступал за «освящение полноты мира», критиковал отношение православной церкви к браку и добивался признания половых отношений как заповеданного Богом священного акта (эта идея оказала влияние на концепцию «святой плоти» Мережковского). Важной составляющей НРС являлось критическое отношение к православной церкви и «историческому» христианству, не способному к дальнейшему развитию в первую очередь из-за подчинения церкви государству. Таким образом критике подвергалась не только церковная, но и государственная власть, что сближало концепцию Мережковского с идеями политического радикализма (это сближение особенно усилилось в годы первой русской революции 1905-1907 годов и было принято далеко не всеми представителями НРС). Средством воплощения НРС в жизнь Мережковский считал социальную революцию, а основными силами, которые должны её осуществить – профессиональных революционеров, разделявших идеи НРС (особые надежды возлагались на партию эсеров), и интеллигенцию. Идеи НРС обсуждались и пропагандировались на Религиозно-философских собраниях 1901-1903 годов (там впервые появился этот термин), на заседаниях петербургского Религиозно-философского общества 1907-1917 годов, в журналах «Новый Путь» (1902-1904), «Вопросы жизни» (1905) и др. Представители православной церкви оценивали НРС как ересь. Представители НРС приветствовали Февральскую революцию 1917 года, однако Октябрьскую революцию не приняли {??}. Оказавшись в эмиграции, многие из них пересмотрели своё отношение к НРС. Часть идей НРС нашла отражение в программах обновленческого движения начала 1920-х годов. // К началу XX века у Гиппиус и Мережковского сложились собственные, оригинальные представления о свободе, метафизике любви, а также необычные неорелигиозные воззрения, связанные, прежде всего, с так называемым «Третьим заветом». Духовно-религиозный максимализм {maximalism, high spirits, + great expectations, high hopes, measurelessness (??) впадение в крайность при требовании чего-то чрезмерного} Мережковских, выразившийся в осознании своей «провиденциальной роли не только в судьбе России, но и в судьбе человечества», достиг апогея в начале 1900-х годов. (...) Идея обновления во многом себя исчерпавшего (как им казалось) христианства возникла у Мережковских осенью 1899 года. Для осуществления задуманного решено было создать «новую церковь», где рождалось бы «новое религиозное сознание». Воплощением этой идеи явилась организация Религиозно-философских собраний (1901—1903), целью которых было провозглашено создание общественной трибуны для «свободного обсуждения вопросов церкви и культуры… неохристианства, общественного устройства и совершенствования человеческой природы». Организаторы Собраний трактовали противопоставление духа и плоти так: «Дух — Церковь, плоть — общество; дух — культура, плоть — народ {both have a role}; дух — религия, плоть — земная жизнь…». Появление и развитие «нового религиозного сознания» Гиппиус обосновывала необходимостью устранить разрыв (или бездну) между духом и плотью, освятить плоть и тем самым просветлить её, упразднить христианский аскетизм, вынуждающий человека жить в сознании своей греховности, сблизить религию и искусство. Разъединённость, обособленность, «ненужность» для другого — главный «грех» её современника {Добролюбов}, умирающего в одиночестве и не желающего отойти от него («Критика любви»), — Гиппиус предполагала преодолевать поиском «общего Бога», осознанием и принятием «равноценности, множественности» других я, в их «неслиянности {non-fusion} и нераздельности {inseparability} {unfused union ??}». {Гиппиус 1915 Равноценности [за подписью А.Кр.]: «Христос и Едиссон идут а разные стороны», утверждает г. Тиняков (...) нет, они именно идут в одну сторону, вместе, неразрывно слитые в одном д в и ж е н и и. Мало того: в Христе уже есть Эдиссон, и отречение от Эдиссона равносильно отречению от Христа.} // Критика любви. Давно мне хотелось поговорить о том, во что превратились отношения людей между собою и какие из этого рождаются тупые и ненужные страдания. Потребность общаться — потребность первоначальная, с нею человек родится. Любовь к одиночеству, замкнутость — развиваются в сердце человеческом уже после, от условий самой жизни. Конечно, скрытность и склонность к уединению бывают наследственны; но и далекая причина их рождения — все та же, неудовлетворенная, обманутая жажда общения. (...) Добролюбов, конечно, столько же юродивый, сколько мы все. Он кричал, мучался, цеплялся за людей, которые, — думал он, и не ошибался — почти все мучаются, как он, и почти тем же, — но остался, как был, в одиночестве. И он углубил одиночество, создал для своей внутренней судьбы соответственную внешнюю судьбу — ушел в аскетизм. Если говорить проще и прямее, то будет так: люди нашего времени отчаиваются и гибнут, — иногда сознательно, иногда бессознательно, — потому что нельзя человеку жить без Бога. А Бога мы потеряли и не находим. Религии отречения, аскетизма, одиночества противится ваше углубившееся сознание, которое видит, что в природе человеческой, рядом с желанием Бога, лежит желание жизни, и мы хотим религии, которая бы оправдала, освятила, приняла жизнь. Религии не одиночества, а общенья, соединения многих — во имя единого.

* Третий Завет [Third Covenant, Dispensationalism]. Третий Завет — концепции различных авторов, претендующие на раскрытие нового откровения, революционного для современного сознания. Подразумевается, что Третий Завет есть продолжение откровения в линии Ветхого и Нового Заветов {"Three ages of Fiore's Millenialism"}, которое, не заменяя и не отменяя предыдущие откровения, знаменует новый этап во взаимоотношениях Бога и человека. Концепции Третьего завета (как обычно бывает с мистический опытом вообще) являются предметом неоднозначного отношения и разномыслия. [E207]

* Плоть и вопросы пола [Мережковские]. Развитие идеи о том, что язычество «утверждало плоть в ущерб духу», а церковное христианство выдвинуло аскетический идеал «духа в ущерб плоти» привело (согласно Н. О. Лосскому) к тому, что важнейшее место в философии Мережковского занял вопрос «плоти». По Мережковскому именно «через пол» достигается высшее единство: «Я сознаю себя в моем собственном теле — это корень личности; я сознаю себя в другом теле — это корень пола; я сознаю себя во всех других телах — это корень общества». Отметив, что на одном из древних языков Библии, арамейском, слово «дух» («Rucha») — женского рода, и сославшись на одну из аграфа (неканонических сказаний о Богоматери) Мережковский оригинально интерпретировал Дух в православной троице, отождествив его с Божьей Матерью. Святая Троица по Мережковскому это Отец, Сын и Мать-Дух. Третий завет, таким образом, будет царством духа-матери, «пламенной заступницы холодного мира» («Иисус Непознанный», 112). Идеал Бога как единство мужской и женской природы он переносил и на своё понимание человека. Разделение на два пола является, с точки зрения Мережковского, симптомом распада личности. Для Мережковского идеал личности (в этом с ним были согласны Вл. Соловьев и Н. Бердяев) — это некое двуполое существо, мужчина-женщина («Тайна трёх», стр. 187). Отмечалось, что большое взаимовлияние друг на друга оказывали Мережковский и В. В. Розанов, также придававший вопросам пола большое значение. «Мережковский некогда провозгласил Розанова русским Ницше. Розанов несомненно предопределил подход Мережковского к христианству, привил ему христианские темы в своей постановке {production, +output ??}», писал Н. Бердяев. По формулировке Лосского, идеал Мережковского — «не бестелесная святость, но святая плоть, Царство Божие, в котором осуществляется мистическое единство тела и духа». Вся его религиозная философия «основана на идее христианства как религии любви и, следовательно, свободы». Это сочетание любви и свободы «приближает его вплотную к религиозно-философскому движению, начало которому было положено Владимиром Соловьевым». Новизна и великое дело Мережковского заключалось в том, что он положил задачею соединить, слить остроту и остроту, острое в христианстве и острое в язычнике {человек, исповедующий язычество}… Открыть (перефразирую задачу так) в «величайшей добродетели» — «соблазнительный порок», а в «соблазняющем пороке» — «величайшую добродетель» {Радаев ??}. — В. Розанов. «Среди иноязычных (Д. С. Мережковский)». В модернизированном христианстве по Мережковскому должны были исчезнуть монашество и аскетизм, а искусство должно стать не только освященным, но и принятым «внутрь» религии. Цель исторического процесса, считал он, состоит в соединении плоти и духа, синтезу религии и культуры; осуществлении «царства Божиего не в потустороннем мире, а здесь, на земле».

* Третий пол [Гиппиус]. Если Христос был мужчиной и мог иметь от своей жены детей, которые стали основателями царской династии, то совершенно ясно, что он не мог быть Богом. Поэтому и Мережковские, и Философов настаивали на андрогинности Христа, что в его образе были воплощены древнейшие предания ещё платоновских и доплатоновских времён о том, что некогда существовал так называемый «третий пол», то есть андрогинны, который был уничтожен велениями древнего божества. (Подробно я рассматривал этот вопрос в статье «Христос или христианство?»). Муриков Г.Г. - Геннадий МУРИКОВ. Д.В. Философов и "новое религиозное сознание" [E207]

* Третий пол [Розанов]. В главе «Третий пол» русский писатель будет критиковать роль пола в христианстве с позиций Вейнингера.70 Австрийский писатель и фило соф Отто Вейнингер (1880–1903) написал книгу «Пол и характер», в Европе она была опубликована в 1903 г., а в Санкт Петербурге – в 1908 г. Автор предложил эвристический принцип изображения реальности в области пола. Суть его состоит в следующем суждении: в опыте каждый индивид, мужчина и женщина, бисексуален, его организм представля ет уникальное сочетание мужественности и женственности. В мире не существует мужчины в «чистом» виде, как не существует совершенной женщины – такое существо есть просто абстракция. Можно говорить о крайних полюсах среди мира мужчин: с одной стороны, это будет мужественный мужчина, а с другой – женоподобный. В женском обществе есть женственные и мужеподобные женщины. В природе есть бесчис ленные промежуточные ступени между мужественными мужчинами и женственными женщинами, середину половой дифференциации состав ляют мужеподобные и женоподобные, т. е. гомосексуалисты.71 Поло вое притяжение индивидов друг к другу обусловлено зеркальным со впадением их полового рисунка. Биологический состав организма оп ределяет душевную структуру человека. Е. А. Королькова - РУССКАЯ ФИЛОСОФИЯ: В. РОЗАНОВ И МЕТАФИЗИКА ПОЛА (page 3)

* Androgyny [Third gender]. Androgyny among humans – expressed in terms of biological sex characteristics, gender identity, or gender expression – is attested to from earliest history and across world cultures. In ancient Sumer, androgynous and intersex men were heavily involved in the cult of Inanna. A set of priests known as gala worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations. Gala took female names, spoke in the eme-sal dialect, which was traditionally reserved for women, and appear to have engaged in sexual acts with men. In later Mesopotamian cultures, kurgarrū and assinnu were servants of the goddess Ishtar (Inanna's East Semitic equivalent), who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples. Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also engaged in sexual activity with men. Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to the contemporary Indian hijra. In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar is described as transforming men into women. The ancient Greek myth of Hermaphroditus and Salmacis, two divinities who fused into a single immortal – provided a frame of reference used in Western culture for centuries. Androgyny and homosexuality are seen in Plato's Symposium in a myth that, according to Plato, Aristophanes tells the audience, possibly with a comic intention. People used to be spherical creatures, with two bodies attached back to back who cartwheeled around. There were three sexes: the male-male people who descended from the sun, the female-female people who descended from the earth, and the male-female people who came from the moon. This last pairing represented the androgynous couple. These sphere people tried to take over the gods and failed. Zeus then decided to cut them in half and had Apollo repair the resulting cut surfaces, leaving the navel as a reminder to not defy the gods again. If they did, he would cleave them in two again to hop around on one leg. This is one of the earlier written references to androgyny - and the only case in classical greek texts that female homosexuality (lesbianism) is ever mentioned. Other early references to androgyny include astronomy, where androgyn was a name given to planets that were sometimes warm and sometimes cold. Philosophers such as Philo of Alexandria, and early Christian leaders such as Origen and Gregory of Nyssa, continued to promote the idea of androgyny as humans' original and perfect state during late antiquity.” In medieval Europe, the concept of androgyny played an important role in both Christian theological debate and Alchemical theory. Influential Theologians such as John of Damascus and John Scotus Eriugena continued to promote the pre-fall androgyny proposed by the early Church Fathers, while other clergy expounded and debated the proper view and treatment of contemporary hermaphrodites. Western esotericism’s embrace of androgyny continued into the modern period. A 1550 anthology of Alchemical thought, De Alchemia, included the influential Rosary of the Philosophers, which depicts the sacred marriage of the masculine principle (Sol) with the feminine principle (Luna) producing the "Divine Androgyne," a representation of Alchemical Hermetic beliefs in dualism, transformation, and the transcendental perfection of the union of opposites. The symbolism and meaning of androgyny was a central preoccupation of the German mystic Jakob Böhme and the Swedish philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg. The philosophical concept of the “Universal Androgyne” (or “Universal Hermaphrodite”) – a perfect merging of the sexes that predated the current corrupted world and/or was the utopia of the next – also plays a central role in Rosicrucian doctrine and in philosophical traditions such as Swedenborgianism and Theosophy. Twentieth century architect Claude Fayette Bragdon expressed the concept mathematically as a magic square, using it as building block in many of his most noted buildings. // Hijra (South Asia). In the Indian subcontinent, Hijra are eunuchs, intersex people, and transgender people. Also known as Aravani, Aruvani, Jogappa, or Chhakka, the hijra community in India prefer to call themselves Kinnar or Kinner, referring to the mythological beings that excel at song and dance. Hijras are officially recognized as third gender in the Indian subcontinent, being considered neither completely male nor female. // Hermaphroditus and Salmacis. In Greek mythology, Salmacis was an atypical naiad {a type water nymph} who rejected the ways of the virginal Greek goddess Artemis in favor of vanity and idleness. Her attempted rape of Hermaphroditus places her as the only nymph rapist in the Greek mythological canon (though see also Dercetis). In Greek mythology, Hermaphroditus or Hermaphroditos was the son of Aphrodite and Hermes. According to Ovid, he was born a remarkably handsome boy with whom the naiad Salmacis fell in love and prayed to be united forever. A god, in answer to her prayer, merged their two forms into one and transformed them into an androgynous form. His name is compounded of his parents' names, Hermes and Aphrodite. He was one of the Erotes. Because Hermaphroditus was a son of Hermes, and consequently a great-grandson of Atlas (Hermes's mother Maia was the daughter of Atlas), sometimes he is called Atlantiades. Hermaphroditus' name is the basis for the word hermaphrodite. Hermaphroditus, the two-sexed child of Aphrodite and Hermes (Venus and Mercury) had long been a symbol of androgyny or effeminacy, and was portrayed in Greco-Roman art as a female figure with male genitals. Theophrastus's account also suggests a link between Hermaphroditus and the institution of marriage. The reference to the fourth day of the month is telling: this is the luckiest day to have a wedding. Hermaphroditus's association with marriage seems to have been that, by embodying both masculine and feminine qualities, he symbolized the coming together of men and women in sacred union. Another factor linking Hermaphroditus to weddings was his parents' role in protecting and blessing brides. Hermaphroditus's name is derived from those of his parents Hermes and Aphrodite. All three of these gods figure largely among erotic and fertility figures, and all possess distinctly sexual overtones. Sometimes, Hermaphroditus is referred to as Aphroditus. The phallic god Priapus was the son of Hermes by some accounts and the youthful god of desire Eros of Ares and Aphrodite. Mythology. Ovid's account relates that Hermaphroditus was nursed by naiads in the caves of Mount Ida, a sacred mountain in Phrygia (present day Turkey). At the age of fifteen, he grew bored with his surroundings and traveled to the cities of Lycia and Caria. It was in the woods of Caria, near Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum, Turkey) that he encountered the nymph, Salmacis, in her pool. She was overcome by lust for the boy, who was very handsome but still young, and tried to seduce him, but was rejected. When he thought her to be gone, Hermaphroditus undressed and entered the waters of the empty pool. Salmacis sprang out from behind a tree and jumped into the pool. She wrapped herself around the boy, forcibly kissing him and touching his breast. While he struggled, she called out to the gods that they should never part. Her wish was granted, and their bodies blended into one form, "a creature of both sexes". Hermaphroditus prayed to Hermes and Aphrodite that anyone else who bathed in the pool would be similarly transformed, and his wish was granted. "In this form the story was certainly not ancient," Károly Kerényi noted. He compared the myth of the beautiful ephebe {ephebos - a male adolescent} with Narcissus and Hyacinthus, who had an archaic hero-cult, and Hymenaios. Diodorus Siculus in his work Library of History mention, that some say that Hermaphroditus is a god and appears at certain times among men, but there are some who declare that such creatures of two sexes are monstrosities, and coming rarely into the world as they do have the quality of presaging the future, sometimes for evil and sometimes for good. // Caduceus. In the ancient and medieval worlds, androgynous people and/or hermaphrodites were represented in art by the caduceus, a wand of transformative power in ancient Greco-Roman mythology. The caduceus is the staff carried by Hermes in Greek mythology and consequently by Hermes Trismegistus in Greco-Egyptian mythology. The same staff was also borne by heralds in general, for example by Iris, the messenger of Hera. It is a short staff entwined by two serpents, sometimes surmounted by wings. In Roman iconography, it was often depicted being carried in the left hand of Mercury, the messenger of the gods. The caduceus is often incorrectly used as a symbol of healthcare organizations and medical practice, particularly in the United States of America, due to confusion with the traditional medical symbol, the Rod of Asclepius, which has only one snake and is never depicted with wings (the logo of the World Health Organization uses the Rod of Asclepius as its basis).

* Androgyny [Plato]. Plato's Androgyne Myth. Aristophanes professed to open another vein of discourse; he had a mind to praise Love in another way, unlike that either of Pausanias or Eryximachus. Mankind, he said, judging by their neglect of him, have never, as I think, at all understood the power of Love. For if they had understood him they would surely have built noble temples and altars, and offered solemn sacrifices in his honour; but this is not done, and most certainly ought to be done: since of all the gods he is the best friend of men, the helper and the healer of the ills which are the great impediment to the happiness of the race. I will try to describe his power to you, and you shall teach the rest of the world what I am teaching you. In the first place, let me treat of the nature of man and what has happened to it; [Primeval man] for the original human nature was not like the present, but different. The sexes were not two as they are now, but originally three in number [third gender]; there was man, woman, and the union of the two, having a name corresponding to this double nature, which had once a real existence, but is now lost, and the word 'Androgynous' is only preserved as a term of reproach. In the second place, the primeval man was round, his back and sides forming a circle; and he had four hands and four feet, one head with [190] two faces, looking opposite ways, set on a round neck and precisely alike; also four ears, two privy members, and the remainder to correspond. He could walk upright as men now do, backwards or forwards as he pleased, and he could also roll over and over at a great pace, turning on his four hands and four feet, eight in all, like tumblers going over and over with their legs in the air; this was when he wanted to run fast. Now the sexes were three, and such as I have described them; because the sun, moon, and earth are three; and the man was originally the child of the sun, the woman of the earth, and the man-woman of the moon, which is made up of sun and earth, and they were all round and moved round and round like their parents. Terrible was their might and strength, and the thoughts of their hearts were great, and they made an attack upon the gods; of them is told the tale of Otys and Ephialtes who, as Homer says, dared to scale heaven, and would have laid hands upon the gods. Doubt reigned in the celestial councils. Should they kill them and annihilate the race with thunderbolts, as they had done the giants, then there would be an end of the sacrifices and worship which men offered to them; but, on the other hand, the gods could not suffer their insolence to be unrestrained. At last, after a good deal of reflection, [Odd Aristophanies fancies] Zeus discovered a way. He said: 'Methinks I have a plan which will humble their pride and improve their manners; men shall continue to exist, but I will cut them in two and then they will be diminished in strength and increased in numbers; this will have the advantage of making them more profitable to us. They shall walk upright on two legs, and if they continue insolent and will not be quiet, I will split them again and they shall hop about on a single leg.' He spoke and cut men in two, like a sorb-apple which is halved for pickling, or as you might divide an egg with a hair; and as he cut them one after another, he bade Apollo give the face and the half of the neck a turn in order that the man might contemplate the section of himself: he would thus learn a lesson of humility. Apollo was also bidden to heal their wounds and compose their forms. So he gave a turn to the face and pulled the skin from the sides all over that which in our language is called the belly, like the purses which draw in, and he made one mouth at the centre, which he fastened in a knot (the same which is called the navel); he also moulded the breast and took out most of the wrinkles, [191] much as a shoemaker might smooth leather upon a last; he left a few, however, in the region of the belly and navel, as a memorial of the primeval state. After the division the two parts of man, each desiring his other half, came together, and throwing their arms about one another, entwined in mutual embraces, longing to grow into one, they were on the point of dying from hunger and self-neglect, because they did not like to do anything apart; and when one of the halves died and the other survived, the survivor sought another mate, man or woman as we call them,—being the sections of entire men or women,—and clung to that. They were being destroyed, when Zeus in pity of them invented a new plan: [The indenture of a man] he turned the parts of generation round to the front, for this had not been always their position, and they sowed the seed no longer as hitherto like grasshoppers in the ground, but in one another; and after the transposition the male generated in the female in order that by the mutual embraces of man and woman they might breed, and the race might continue; or if man came to man they might be satisfied, and rest, and go their ways to the business of life: so ancient is the desire of one another which is implanted in us, reuniting our original nature, making one of two, and healing the state of man. Each of us when separated, having one side only, like a flat fish, is but the indenture {indenture - hist. a deed or contract of which copies were made for the contracting parties with the edges indented for identification and to prevent forgery} of a man, and he is always looking for his other half. Men who are a section of that double nature which was once called Androgynous are lovers of women; adulterers are generally of this breed, and also adulterous women who lust after men: the women who are a section of the woman do not care for men, but have female attachments; the female companions are of this sort. But they who are a section of the male follow the male, and while they are young, being slices of [192] the original man, they hang about men and embrace them {catamites}, and they are themselves the best of boys and youths, because they have the most manly nature {!}. Some indeed assert that they are shameless, but this is not true; for they do not act thus from any want of shame, but because they are valiant and manly, and have a manly countenance, and they embrace that which is like them. And these when they grow up become our statesmen, and these only, which is a great proof of the truth of what I am saying. When they reach manhood they are lovers of youth, and are not naturally inclined to marry or beget children,—if at all, they do so only in obedience to the law; [The desire of reunion] but they are satisfied if they may be allowed to live with one another unwedded; and such a nature is prone to love and ready to return love, always embracing that which is akin to him. And when one of them meets with his other half, the actual half of himself, whether he be a lover of youth or a lover of another sort, the pair are lost in an amazement of love and friendship and intimacy, and one will not be out of the other's sight, as I may say, even for a moment: these are the people who pass their whole lives together; yet they could not explain what they desire of one another. For the intense yearning which each of them has towards the other does not appear to be the desire of lover's intercourse, but of something else which the soul of either evidently desires and cannot tell, and of which she has only a dark and doubtful presentiment. Suppose Hephaestus, with his instruments, to come to the pair who are lying side by side and to say to them, 'What do you people want of one another?' they would be unable to explain. And suppose further, that when he saw their perplexity he said: 'Do you desire to be wholly one; always day and night to be in one another's company? for if this is what you desire, I am ready to melt you into one and let you grow together, so that being two you shall become one, and while you live live a common life as if you were a single man, and after your death in the world below still be one departed soul instead of two—I ask whether this is what you lovingly desire, and whether you are satisfied to attain this?'—there is not a man of them who when he heard the proposal would deny or would not acknowledge that this meeting and melting into one another, this becoming one instead of two, was the very expression of his ancient need. And the reason is that human nature was originally one and we were a whole, and the desire and pursuit of the whole is called love. [193] There was a time, I say, when we were one, but now because of the wickedness of mankind God has dispersed us, as the Arcadians were dispersed into villages by the Lacedaemonians. And if we are not obedient to the gods, there is a danger that we shall be split up again and go about in basso-relievo, like the profile figures having only half a nose which are sculptured on monuments, and that we shall be like tallies. Wherefore let us exhort all men to piety, that we may avoid evil, and obtain the good, of which Love is to us the lord and minister; and let no one oppose him—he is the enemy of the gods who opposes him. For if we are friends of the God and at peace with him we shall find our own true loves, which rarely happens in this world at present. I am serious, and therefore I must beg Eryximachus not to make fun or to find any allusion in what I am saying to Pausanias and Agathon, who, as I suspect, are both of the manly nature, and belong to the class which I have been describing. But my words have a wider application—they include men and women everywhere; and I believe that if our loves were perfectly accomplished, and each one returning to his primeval nature had his original true love, then our race would be happy. And if this would be best of all, the best in the next degree and under present circumstances must be the nearest approach to such an union; and that will be the attainment of a congenial {existing or associated together harmoniously} love. [Exhortation of Aristophanes to piety] Wherefore, if we would praise him who has given to us the benefit, we must praise the god Love, who is our greatest benefactor, both leading us in this life back to our own nature, and giving us high hopes for the future, for he promises that if we are pious, he will restore us to our original state, and heal us and make us happy and blessed. This, Eryximachus, is my discourse of love, which, although different to yours, I must beg you to leave unassailed by the shafts of your ridicule, in order that each may have his turn; each, or rather either, for Agathon and Socrates are the only ones left. Plato's Myths - Androgyne Myth (Symposium 189c–193e) [E203]

* Androgyny [shamanism]. Shamans, as the Sakha (Yakut) curer Vladimir Kondakov told me in 1992, should be able to balance and mediate energies within multiple levels of cosmological worlds. To do so requires spiritual transformations into animals and the harnessing of both male and female sexual potential. For many, this means having male shamans accept female spirit helpers as guides, and vice versa, incorporating their power and even their gendered essence in trance and during séances. It can involve tapping the gendered spiritual force of a tree, for instance the female birch, to cure a male patient. And in a particularly dramatic form, the greatest shamans, even if they are males, are able to themselves give birth to spirit animals. Sabrina Petra Ramet - Sacred Genders in Siberia: Shamans, Bear Festivals, and Androgyny

* Androgyny [Eriugena]. Eriugena is believed to have held to a form of apocatastasis or universal reconciliation, which maintains that the universe will eventually be restored under God's dominion. His form of apocatastasis however is fairly unique. It is not Christian Universalism, but rather part of a broader Neoplatonic eschatology. As the cosmos for Eriugena gradually unfolds the grades of reality from the Godhead, so too will the various grades enfold into each other in a cosmic return to God, of which the Incarnation of Christ is a necessary tool for such a reversion. After the resurrection, the division between the sexes shall be abolished and elevated man will be as the fall had never happened for the elect {Gippius to a tee}. The body of each person will return to the soul from which it was separated such that, "life will become sense; sense will become reason and reason will become pure thought. A fourth stage will return the human soul to its primary cause or Idea and, together with the soul, the body it has reabsorbed...The fifth and last moment of this universal "analysis" will bring the terrestrial sphere back to Paradise. As this movement will propagate itself from sphere to sphere, nature and all its causes will let themselves be progressively permeated by God as air is by light. From that time and on, there will be nought else but God." However for Eriugena, this deification does not result in annihilation, because he believes that things are more real in their primordial causes than in themselves, and as such he evades the Origenistic apocatastasis whereby the lower grades of reality are annihilated. So, while everything has indeed returned to God in Eriugena's account, material hell is a "pagan superstition", eternal punishment remains as "the supernatural distinction between the chosen and the condemned will remain whole and will persist eternally, but each one will be beatified or punished in his own conscience." (John Scotus Eriugena)

* Androgyny [Boehme]. Boehme has a most remarkable teaching about Sophia, essentially the first in the history of Christian thought. His was a completely original intuition. The sophiology of Boehme cannot be explained by influences and borrowings. If Boehme in his intuition of the Ungrund tends to see darkness, then in the intuition of Sophia he tends to see light. Boehme's understanding of Sophia has its own theological and cosmological side, but overall it is primarily anthropological. Sophia for him is bound up with the pure, the virginal, the chaste and integrally whole image of man. Sophia is likewise purity and virginity, the integral wholeness and chasteness of man, the image and likeness of God in man. Boehme's teaching about Sophia is inseparable from his teaching about androgyny, i.e. the initial integral wholeness of man. Man possesses an androgynic, bisexual, masculine-feminine nature. Innate to man was Sophia, i.e. a Virgin. The fall through sin is also a loss of his Sophia-Virgin, which has flown off to the heavens. Upon the earth instead has arisen the feminine, Eve. Man grieves with longing for his lost Sophia, his lost virginal state, the wholeness and chasteness. Half a being is a being torn asunder, having lost the integral wholeness. In his teaching about androgyny Boehme stands in the same line, which is to be found in the "Symposium" of Plato, and the Kabbala. "Siehe! ich gebe dir ein gerecht Gleichniss: du seist ein Juengling oder Jungfrau, wie denn Adam alles beides in einer Person war" {"Behold, I give a correct comparison, for thou art divided into a youth or a maiden, whereas Adam was all both in one person"}. The unique aspect of Boehme's teaching about Sophia is in this, that it is first of all a teaching about the Virgin and virginity. The Divine Wisdom within man is a virginity of soul, the Virgin, lost by man in the fall through sin and shining in the heavens. "Die Seele sollte sein der schoene Juengling, der geschaffen war; und die Kraft Gottes die schoene Jungfrau, und das Licht Gottes die schoene Perlen-Krone, damit wollte die Jungfrau den Juengling schmuecken" {"The soul was supposed to be a beautiful youth, as which it was created; and the power of God a beautiful Virgin, and the light of God a beautiful Pearl-Crown, wherewith the Virgin wanted to adorn the youth"}. Adam, who initially was an androgyne, in his fall through sin by his fault lost his Virgin and found the woman. "Adam hat durch seine Lust verloren die Jungfrau, und hat in seiner Lust empfangen das Weib, welche ist eine cagastrische Person; und die Jungfrau wartet seiner noch immerdar, ob er will wieder treten in die neue Geburt so will sie ihn mit grossen Ehren wieder annehmen" {"Adam through his lustful desire has lost the Virgin, and in his desire has come to perceive the womanly, which is a transitory person; and the Virgin yet ever awaits, whether he will again appear in a new birth so that it again can be assumed by him with great honour"}. Eve -- is the child of this world and is created for this world: "die Heva ist zu diesem zerbrechlichen Leben geschaffen worden; denn sie ist die Frau dieser Welt" {"Eve is formed for this fragile life; and thus she is the woman of this world"}. Androgyny likewise is the image and likeness of God in man: "allein das Bild und Gleichniss Gottes, der Mensch, welcher die zuechtige Jungfrau der Weisheit Gottes in sich hatte: so drang der Geist dieser Welt also hart auf die Bildniss nach der Jungfrau; hiermit seine Wunder zu offenbaren, und besass den Menschen, davon er erst seinen Namen Mensch kriegte, als eine vermischte Person" {"Alone hath man in himself the image and likeness of God, which is the chaste Virgin of the Wisdom of God: thus also strongly impressed upon the spirit of this world is the image still of the Virgin, herewith revealing its miracle in possessing man, because he foremost hath the Name of Man, as a composite Person"}. N. A. BERDYAEV (BERDIAEV) - STUDIES CONCERNING JACOB BOEHME Etude II. The Teaching about Sophia and the Androgyne. [E204]

* Androgyny [Baader]. One of Baader's central ideas is his concept of androgyny: The Androgyne is the harmonious fusion of the sexes, resulting in a certain asexuality, a synthesis which creates an entirely new being, and which does not merely juxtapose the two sexes 'in an enflamed opposition' as the hermaphrodite does. Following the literal wording of the first of Genesis's two accounts of the creation of man, Baader says that Man was originally an androgynous being. Neither man nor woman is the "image and likeness of God" but only the androgyne. Both sexes are equally fallen from the original divinity of the androgyne. Androgynism is man's likeness to God, his supernatural upsurge. Hence it follows that sexes must cease and vanish. From these positions Baader interpreted the sacrament of marriage as a symbolic restitution of angelic bisexuality: The secret and the sacrament of true love in the indissoluble bond of the two lovers, consists in each helping the other, each in himself, towards the restoration of the androgyne, the pure and whole humanity. Ultimately Christ's sacrifice will make possible a restoration of the primal androgyny. Baader believed that primordial androgyny would return as the world neared its end." (Franz Xaver von Baader)

* Anthropology of castration. "Castration was an Oriental operation; mutilation of priests and votaries in connexion with religious cults and fertility festivals had also its origin and home in Asia, among the Semitic races, whence it spread by a process of proselytism. It was a noticeable feature in most of the closely allied cults in Anatolia and Syria,' e.g., Phrygia (Attis-Cybele cult), Stratonicea in Caria (Zeus-Hecate cult), Ephesus (Artemis cult), Hierapolis-Bambyce (Atargatis cult), Hierapolis in Syria (AdonisAstarte cult), whither pilgrims from Assyria, Babylonia, Phcenicia and Arabia came to the great festival. It was found in Cyprus (Adonis-Aphrodite cult), Egypt (Osiris cult), and Augustudunum in Gaul (Berecyntia cult). Instances of the association with fertility festivals and phallic cults of castrated persons, "eunuchs from birth" (cryptorchids, hermaphrodites), and the functionally impotent have been found in India, Pegu, Korea, the Congo, South Nigeria and South Africa. Castration was sometimes associated with religious asceticism in the Early Christian Church; in modern times the same practice is found in India amongst Hindus, Sudras and Brahmins and also in Russia amongst the Skoptzy. It was a rite originally closely associated with the Semitic Mother-Goddess of the East, the Asiatic fertility-goddess, who was worshipped under so many different names with the special complex of the Divine Consort, Heliolatry and ceremonies arising from these ideas. In the case of the Cybele cult and some others the rite was probably engrafted on the simpler worship of the Great Earth-Mother of the Mediterranean basin." - On a Romano-British Castration Clamp used in the Rites of Cybele. By ALFRED G. FRANCIS // Attis was the consort of his mother, Cybele, in Phrygian and Greek mythology. His priests were eunuchs, the Galli, as explained by origin myths pertaining to Attis and castration. Attis was also a Phrygian god of vegetation. In his self-mutilation, death and resurrection he represents the fruits of the earth which die in winter only to rise again in the spring. The story of his origins at Agdistis, recorded by the traveler Pausanias, have some distinctly non-Greek elements: Pausanias was told that the daemon Agdistis initially bore both male and female attributes. (Agdistis was a deity of Greek, Roman and Anatolian mythology, possessing both male and female sexual organs. She is closely associated with the Phrygian goddess Cybele. Her androgyny was seen as symbolic of a wild and uncontrollable nature. It was this trait which was threatening to the gods and ultimately led to her destruction.) But the Olympian gods, fearing Agdistis, cut off the male organ and cast it away. There grew up from it an almond-tree, and when its fruit was ripe, Nana, who was a daughter of the river-god Sangarius, picked an almond and laid it in her bosom. The almond disappeared, and she became pregnant. Nana abandoned the baby (Attis). The infant was tended by a he-goat. As Attis grew, his long-haired beauty was godlike, and his mother, Agdistis as Cybele, then fell in love with him. But the foster parents of Attis sent him to Pessinos, where he was to wed the king's daughter. According to some versions the King of Pessinos was Midas. Just as the marriage-song was being sung, Agdistis/Cybele appeared in her transcendent power, and Attis went mad and cut off his genitals. Attis' father-in-law-to-be, the king who was giving his daughter in marriage, followed suit, prefiguring the self-castrating corybantes who devoted themselves to Cybele. But Agdistis repented and saw to it that the body of Attis should neither rot at all nor decay. // According to Pausanias, on one occasion Zeus unwittingly begot by the Earth a superhuman being which was at once man and woman, and was called Agdistis. In other versions, there was a rock, called "Agdo", on which the Great Mother slept. Zeus impregnated the Great Mother (Gaia), which brought forth Agdistis. The gods were afraid of the multi-gendered Agdistis. One deity (in some versions Liber, in others Dionysus) put a sleeping draught in Agdistis's drinking well. After the potion had put Agdistis to sleep, Dionysus tied Agdistis's foot to his own male genitalia (φαλλός) with a strong rope. When Agdistis awoke and stood, Agdistis ripped his penis off, castrating himself. The blood from his severed genitals fertilized the earth, and from that spot grew an almond tree. Once when Nana, daughter of the river-god Sangarius, was gathering the fruit of this tree, she put some almonds (or, in some accounts, a pomegranate) into her bosom; but here the almonds disappeared, and she became pregnant with Attis. Attis was of such extraordinary beauty that when he had grown up Agdistis fell in love with him. His relatives, however, destined him to become the husband of the daughter of the king of Pessinus, and he went accordingly. In some versions, the king betroths Attis to his daughter to punish Attis for his incestuous relationship with his mother. At the moment when the marriage song had commenced, Agdistis appeared, and all the wedding guests were instantly driven mad, causing both Attis and the king of Pessinus to castrate themselves and the bride to cut off her breasts. Agdistis now repented her deed, and obtained from Zeus the promise that the body of Attis should not become decomposed or disappear. This is the most popular account of an otherwise mysterious affair, which is probably part of a symbolical worship of the creative powers of nature. // According to Greek mythology, the Korybantes were the armed and crested dancers who worshipped the Phrygian goddess Cybele with drumming and dancing. They are also called the Kurbantes in Phrygia. The conventional English equivalent is "Corybants". These armored male dancers kept time to a drum and the rhythmic stamping of their feet. The dance in armor (the "Pyrrhic dance" or pyrrhichios) was a male coming-of-age initiation ritual linked to a warrior victory celebration. The Phrygian Korybantes were often confused by Greeks with other ecstatic male confraternities, such as the Idaean Dactyls or the Cretan Kouretes, spirit-youths (kouroi) who acted as guardians of the infant Zeus. Korybantes also presided over the infancy of Dionysus, another god who was born as a babe, and of Zagreus, a Cretan child of Zeus, or child-doublet of Zeus. The wild ecstasy of their cult can be compared to the female Maenads who followed Dionysus. The scholar Jane Ellen Harrison writes that besides being guardians, nurturers, and initiators of the infant Zeus, the Kouretes were primitive magicians and seers. She also writes that they were metal workers and that metallurgy was considered an almost magical art. [P47]

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* Поппер - [анти-]историцизм (1945). В этих работах К. Поппер обрушивается на то, что он именует историцизмом. Под историцизмом он понимает взгляд, согласно которому существует процесс исторического развития, подчиненный действию определенных, не зависящих от человека сил. Если эти силы не сверхъестественные, а естественные, то историцизм предполагает существование определенных объективных законов, определяющих ход исторического процесса. Семенов Юрий Иванович - Философия истории - 2.11. СОВРЕМЕННЫЙ АНТИИСТОРИЗМ («АНТИИСТОРИЦИЗМ»)

* Идея вечного возвращения [Eternal return/recurrence, cyclic universe]. Eternal return (also known as eternal recurrence) (concept of cyclical patterns) is a theory that the universe and all existence and energy has been recurring, and will continue to recur, in a self-similar form an infinite number of times across infinite time or space. As Heidegger points out in his lectures on Nietzsche, Nietzsche's first mention of eternal recurrence, in aphorism 341 of The Gay Science, presents this concept as a hypothetical question rather than postulating it as a fact. According to Heidegger, it is the burden imposed by the question of eternal recurrence—whether or not such a thing could possibly be true—that is so significant in modern thought: "The way Nietzsche here patterns the first communication of the thought of the 'greatest burden' [of eternal recurrence] makes it clear that this 'thought of thoughts' is at the same time 'the most burdensome thought.' [E143]